En esta sección se presentan, en forma resumida, algunas esferas de acción programática referentes a la migración y la salud, con los correspondientes enfoques de política y con ejemplos prácticos. No se trata en modo alguno de una descripción completa. Las prioridades deberán establecerse con arreglo al contexto nacional, según se haya determinado en las consultas multipartitas y transectoriales y plasmado en un plan nacional sobre migración y salud (véase la sección Formulación de un plan nacional integral sobre migración y salud del presente capítulo). Pero las esferas examinadas a continuación son normalmente de gran importancia y podrían tenerse en cuenta en esos planes.
Los migrantes en situaciones de vulnerabilidad, que no pueden permitirse un seguro médico o que carecen de la documentación necesaria están excluidos sistemáticamente de toda asistencia médica que no sea de urgencia en la mayoría de los países del mundo. Sin embargo, la disponibilidad de una atención de salud de calidad, accesible y asequible para los migrantes no beneficia solo a la población de migrantes: también protege a las personas de las comunidades de tránsito y de acogida (véase más información sobre los aspectos de género de la protección social y el seguro médico en el examen del acceso a servicios del capítulo Género y migración).
Se habla de gasto catastrófico en salud cuando los pagos directos por la atención sanitaria consumen una proporción tan alta del ingreso disponible, que el hogar puede verse abocado a la pobreza (véanse Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS), 2021, y OMS, 2019). Para ofrecer la cobertura sanitaria universal a los migrantes se requerirán prácticas y políticas innovadoras, que tengan en cuenta los costos de salud pública causados por la exclusión y el descuido y los dividendos positivos generados por una población de migrantes sana e integrada. Los planes de seguridad social son un ejemplo de práctica de ese tipo. Los mecanismos que amplían la protección social de la salud y aumentan la cobertura de seguridad social de los migrantes y sus familias pueden mejorar el acceso a los servicios de salud necesarios y evitar los pagos directos excesivos de los migrantes que necesitan atención sanitaria. Esos mecanismos podrían incluir planes de seguro médico flexibles y transfronterizos (transferibles).
Thailand is expanding health coverage for all through a phased approach. One phase is the social security scheme, which is made available to Thai nationals as well as regular migrants. This is an example of a payroll contribution scheme. Another scheme is for migrant workers in the informal labour sector, some of whom are undocumented migrants. In 2004, the Thai Government implemented the migrant health insurance scheme. This is a comprehensive prepaid, premium-based health insurance scheme offered to migrants, including undocumented migrants. To be covered by this health insurance scheme, migrants pay a fee of USD 50 per year. In order for undocumented migrants to access this health insurance, they must register with the Government, making insurance provision part of the process of becoming documented and regularized. The benefits offered by the various health insurance schemes are similar, so there is no discrimination in terms of packages for migrants or nationals. Such a practice contributes to the expansion of health coverage, as well as to inclusion and social cohesion.
Guinto et al., 2015.
- IOM Regional Office for the European Economic Area, the European Union and NATO, Infographic on costs of exclusion from health-care, 2016.
- Suphanchaimat, R. et al., Evolution and complexity of government policies to protect the health of undocumented/illegal migrants in Thailand: The unsolved challenges, 2017. This study explores the challenges faced by Thailand in implementing migrant-inclusive health policies and steps that have been taken by policymakers to provide health coverage to all migrants.
- Consider increasing social security coverage for migrants and their families, which could include flexible and cross-border (portable) health insurance schemes to:
- Allow migrants to export their social benefits to families left behind;
- Provide future social benefits, such as health care in old age;
- Cover costs of repatriation due to medical needs or public health emergencies;
- Cover integration assistance, upon arrival or return, including psychological services.
- Invest in the provision of primary health care that is migrant inclusive (WHO, IOM and Government of Spain, 2010).
- Provide more funding to enable other partners and communities to respond to the immediate, medium-term and long-term health needs of migrants.
Los sistemas de salud que se centran en las personas y tienen en cuenta las necesidades de los migrantes ayudan a acelerar la mejora de los resultados sanitarios y a reducir las desigualdades de salud entre las poblaciones, incluidas las disparidades entre los migrantes y las comunidades receptoras. Centrar los sistemas en las personas significa crear una cultura en que la salud de los migrantes esté integrada en las decisiones de todos los sectores de la sociedad y, en particular, en las políticas públicas. El discurso actual en los ámbitos de la migración y la salud propugna un cambio hacia la equidad y la inclusión de los migrantes, destacando los enfoques que pueden adoptar los países en las esferas señaladas a continuación (véase la figura 7).
- Establish firewalls – that is, measures to separate immigration enforcement activities from the provision of health care – to avoid migrants delaying, limiting or having no access to health care.
- Design and implement tools, including capacity-building for health-care providers, that address cultural and linguistic barriers, xenophobia and discrimination, and legal and financial hurdles, with the involvement of migrant health workers.
- Provide factual, timely, user-friendly information on the human rights and health needs of migrants in order to counter stigmatization.
- Engage migrant communities and civil society in design, delivery and evaluation of health services among migrants and receiving communities.
- Identify and strengthen the health-care skills within migrant populations through training and certification, in keeping with national standards and evaluation.
On 19 May 2014, the sixty-seventh World Health Assembly (WHA) adopted the new post-2015 global tuberculosis (TB) strategy and targets. The strategy aims to end the global TB epidemic with specific benchmarks and targets through to 2035. The strategy builds on a “know your epidemic” approach, and focuses particularly on serving those not typically reached: the most vulnerable and marginalized populations. In line with the principles and three pillars of the new strategy, TB and migration can be addressed through:
- Migrant-inclusive national TB plans:
- Address the burden of TB in migrants and their needs in epidemiological assessments and national programme reviews.
- Include migrants in country processes for development of national TB strategic plans and resource mobilization.
- Strengthen country monitoring systems to include disaggregated data on migrants, where relevant.
- Migrant-sensitive care and prevention:
- Sensitize health personnel to migrants’ TB needs, and build cultural competency reflective of those needs.
- Ensure that TB diagnostics, treatment and care services are adapted to the needs of migrants, including the management of multi drug resistant tuberculosis (MDR TB) and of the tuberculosis–HIV/AIDS co-epidemic (TB/HIV), as well as access to new TB technologies.
- Establish cross-border referral systems with contact tracing and information sharing to ensure continuity of care for migrants and harmonize treatment protocols across borders along migration corridors.
- Empower migrant communities through social mobilization and health communications.
- Bold intersectoral policies and systems:
- Ensure policy coherence between health and non-health sectors, such as immigration and labour, to support migrant TB interventions within and across countries.
- Adopt policies and/or regulations that improve migrants’ access to services and to financial and social protection, regardless of status.
- Eliminate discriminatory legal and administrative barriers.
- Promote inclusion of TB in bilateral or regional agreements on migration with appropriate accountability; pursue innovative public–private partnerships.
- Operational research:
- Pursue research, including on social determinants, new tools and intervention approaches, taking into account migrants’ needs.
IOM and WHO, 2014.
- World Health Organization (WHO), Primary Health Care, n.d. Primary health care is the foundation towards achieving universal health coverage, providing comprehensive care, focusing on physical, mental, and social health as well as well-being.
- WHO, Competency Standards for Health Provision to Migrants and Refugees, 2021.
- WHO, Everybody’s Business: Strengthening Health Systems to Improve Health Outcomes, WHO’s Framework for Action, 2007.
- WHO, Health Systems Strengthening Glossary, 2011.
La movilidad humana local, regional y mundial puede amplificar la propagación de las enfermedades transmisibles y el impacto de los problemas de salud pública, si los servicios y la labor global de prevención de esos problemas no tienen en cuenta e incluyen a los migrantes. La actual pandemia por la enfermedad coronavírica de 2019 (COVID-19) y los brotes de enfermedad del Ébola en África Occidental han sido un claro recordatorio de esta realidad. Para abordar eficazmente los problemas de la seguridad sanitaria mundial (sitio web en inglés), habrá que mejorar la prevención y detección de la propagación de enfermedades, y las correspondientes respuestas, en todas las etapas de la movilidad (los puntos de origen, tránsito, destino y retorno) y en los espacios de vulnerabilidad en que los migrantes y las poblaciones móviles interactúan con las comunidades locales y estacionarias. Ello exigirá un enfoque multisectorial que unifique la gestión de fronteras con la seguridad sanitaria y, en fin de cuentas, apoye la implementación del Reglamento Sanitario Internacional (RSI, 2005). La comprensión de la dinámica de la movilidad humana es esencial para elaborar intervenciones de salud pública que prevengan, detecten y combatan las amenazas para la salud internacional y, de esa forma, apoyen la aplicación de la Agenda de Seguridad Sanitaria Mundial (sitio web en inglés). Los conocimientos actualizados de los patrones de movilidad deberían complementarse con la determinación y priorización de los espacios de vulnerabilidad, donde es preciso reforzar las medidas de salud pública. El hecho de conocer los orígenes, las rutas y los destinos de los viajeros, junto con la inclusión de los migrantes en los sistemas de salud, ayudan a predecir las pautas de transmisión de las enfermedades.
La esquematización cartográfica de la movilidad de la población es una guía importante para las intervenciones de salud pública. Puede ofrecer una base objetiva para la instalación de puestos de reconocimiento médico y mecanismos de remisión de casos en los espacios de vulnerabilidad, especialmente en los puntos de cruce de fronteras internacionales, en caso de brotes de enfermedades u otras amenazas sanitarias de rápida propagación. Es muy importante que las comunidades fronterizas cuenten con medidas de vigilancia y salud pública a fin de prevenir, detectar y combatir las amenazas para la salud. Si se determinan y priorizan los espacios de vulnerabilidad, podrán activarse respuestas de salud pública en cuanto se detecte una amenaza sanitaria, coordinando estrechamente los puntos de tránsito y congregación, los centros de operaciones de emergencia y los servicios de remisión de casos.
- Global Health Security Agenda (GHSA). Launched in 2014, the Agenda is a partnership of nearly 70 nations and other stakeholders that aims to promote security from infectious disease threats, bring together nations to make concrete commitments, and elevate GHS as a national priority. Global health security activities aim to minimize risks and devastating outcomes posed by pandemics, health emergencies and weak health systems.
- IOM, Health, Border and Mobility Management Framework, 2021. The IOM Health, Border and Mobility Management (HBMM) Framework empowers governments and communities to prevent, detect and respond to health threats along the mobility continuum. HBMM endeavours to build health systems that are mobility competent, inclusive and responsive to the dynamics of human mobility, ensuring universal health coverage, which is essential for global health security.
- IOM, Assessing Population Mobility Dynamics and Patterns for Public Health Emergency Preparedness and Response, 2017c. Discusses population mobility mapping, which is a methodology that adapts elements of the Displacement Tracking Matrix framework to understand cross-border mobility patterns for guiding health sector preparedness and response.
Establish bilateral or multilateral agreements addressing access to health, such as:
- Access to health services across borders;
- Timely transfer of data concerning migrants’ health to ensure continuity of care; it is also important to ensure that appropriate data protection protocols are in place, and that migrants’ ownership of their personal health records is guaranteed;
- Harmonization of treatment protocol and regimens and interoperability of information between health providers and border authorities across borders;
- Engagement of migrants, mobile populations and communities along border areas for an empowered approach to health education, promotion and prevention;
- Separation of border control measures from access to health care;
- Cross-border collaboration, or regional harmonization, between destination and origin countries for treating communicable diseases, such as tuberculosis (TB), HIV/AIDS and malaria.
Los resultados sanitarios de los migrantes se ven afectados por diversos factores en las distintas etapas del proceso migratorio. Como se ilustra en la figura 8, esos factores pueden ser individuales, de la sociedad, estructurales y contextuales.
In the context of health, vulnerability encompasses the notion of unequal opportunities, social exclusion, and other socioeconomic and cultural factors that make a person more susceptible to ill health (IOM, WHO and Government of Sri Lanka, 2017) (read more on migration as determinant of health in Health in the context of migration). Women, children, persons with disabilities and those identifying as LGBTI may be more vulnerable, and displacement induced by environmental degradation and climate events may increase migrants’ health risks (Further details in the interlinkage The environment, climate change, migration and health, and in Gender, protection and services in Chapter Gender and migration).
In contrast, resilience (IOM, WHO and Government of Sri Lanka, 2017) would be influenced by certain individual characteristics such as younger age, good living conditions, and higher levels of support that can enable the good health outcomes for migrants. Self-help groups, safe spaces for community-based discussions, skills-building support and good communication channels with families left behind can all be culturally responsive and migrant-friendly interventions to build resilience. Also relevant in the context of migration health is empowerment and recognition of the role of migrant and diaspora health workers in building resilience among communities in both origin and destination countries (IOM, 2018b; see also the interlinkage Health-related considerations in labour migration).
- Improve or modify regulatory and legal frameworks to address specific health needs of vulnerable migrant populations, in accordance with applicable national and international laws.
- Prioritize funding and timely implementation of health services for migrants such as maternal health care (including prenatal and postnatal care), specialized care for survivors of violence, child health activities and mental health services.
- Ensure equitable access to occupational health treatment for migrant workers, especially in sectors known to be prone to exploitation and hazardous working conditions.
- Promote empowerment and resilience building of migrants through health interventions. In parallel, promote the inclusion of migrants in societies so they can access and benefit from health care. Promote intersectoral partnerships that support such empowerment, resilience building and inclusion (see the case study below for an example.)
The Dutch Government is funding an ongoing programme for improving the sexual and reproductive health, rights and HIV outcomes for migrants, adolescents and young people and sex workers in migration-affected communities in Southern Africa, with a primary focus on border regions with high levels of mobility. Over 1,400 community change agents have been engaged since 2016, and the high quality of their work is evident in the increase in persons reached by the comprehensive sexual and reproductive health services, and in the referral follow-through rate of above 60 per cent among clients referred from communities to local health facilities. The use of a holistic service delivery capacity model – with sensitization and upskilling of health-care facility staff, from security guards to clinicians to administrators – has helped to ensure migrant-friendly services are delivered in communities in need.
IOM Regional Office for Southern Africa, 2019b.
- Zimmerman, C. and R. Borland, Caring for Trafficked Persons: Guidance for Health Providers, 2009.
- World Health Organization (WHO) Regional Office for Europe, Improving the Health Care of Pregnant Refugee and Migrant Momen and Newborn Children: Technical Guidance, 2018b.
- WHO Regional Office for Europe, Health of Refugee and Migrant Children: Technical Guidance, 2018c.
- WHO Regional Office for Europe, Health of Older Refugees and Migrants: Technical Guidance, 2018d.
La innovación tecnológica y social en todo el mundo conecta a los migrantes no solo con sus familias, sino también con la información sanitaria y los servicios de salud.
La tecnología innovadora por telefonía móvil y por Internet disponible para los dispensadores de atención de salud incluye el aprendizaje en línea, la telemedicina y el apoyo quirúrgico a distancia ofrecido a los profesionales de la salud que trabajan en zonas remotas, áreas de conflicto y otros entornos (véanse más detalles sobre los contextos de crisis en el capítulo Respuesta a situaciones de emergencia). Las consultas en línea son una de las formas de mejorar la eficiencia de los sistemas de salud con soluciones basadas en Internet, cuando los recursos —como los profesionales con formación médica— son escasos.
La tecnología innovadora por telefonía móvil y por Internet para la salud de los migrantes comprende el uso de teléfonos móviles en la asistencia sanitaria y la medicina. Dado el número de usuarios de teléfonos móviles, las intervenciones de este tipo podrían resolver algunos de los retos sanitarios planteados por la movilidad. La salud por telefonía móvil puede ayudar a mejorar el cumplimiento de las pautas terapéuticas en las poblaciones marginadas o de difícil acceso, como algunos grupos de migrantes, mediante el tratamiento bajo observación directa por teléfono móvil o videocámara, así como la eficiencia del sistema de salud cuando los recursos, incluidos los profesionales con formación médica disponibles, son escasos (por ejemplo, mediante el uso de mensajes de texto para seguir de cerca a los pacientes o recordarles que tomen los medicamentos). Otras soluciones facilitan el acceso de los migrantes a la información sobre los sistemas de salud.
In recent years, international migration into the European Union has increased markedly. As a consequence, the importance of directives aiming at improving cross-border health care and data sharing is increasingly apparent. Backed by extensive prior field assessments, and in line with the European Agenda on Migration, the project Re-Health1 was launched in 2016 in partnership with IOM. Re-Health1 aims to assist European Union Member States, especially those under particular migratory pressure, to address migration health issues, while addressing possible communicable diseases and cross-border health events.
The project reinforces the need for a unified tool for health assessment at the European Union level. Such a tool enables retracing the medical history of newly arrived migrants, facilitates transit to destination countries and fosters the integration into national health systems. The project established an electronic health database of electronic personal health records (e-PHR) and piloted it in different countries across Europe. Croatia, Greece and Slovenia, with the support of IOM, then started implementing and consolidating the use of e-PHR as a single tool for health assessments. IOM is also developing a revised version of the tool and its related electronic platform with the overall objective of contributing to the integration of newly arrived migrants and refugees, including those to be relocated, in the European Union Member States’ health systems.
These efforts are aligned with the priorities and actions set out under the EU Public Health Work Programme 2017 as well as with the SDGs towards well-managed migration, universal health coverage and government commitments to “leave no one behind”, and WHA70.15 on promoting the health of refugees and migrants and the Global Compact for Migration.
Any form of migration implies a redefinition of individual, family, group and collective identities, roles and value systems, which can put the individuals, the families and the communities involved under stress. An inclusive and human rights-based approach that guarantees the availability and accessibility of psychosocial support and mental health care to all migrants (irrespective of their status) and their receiving communities can contribute to positive social, economic and cultural outcomes for migrants, their families, communities, and also the societies of both origin and destination countries. In the context of migration health interventions, this can involve, for instance:
- Capacity-building of service providers in mental health and population mobility;
- Actions promoting migrants’ access to mental health services, including ensuring that there is continuity of psychosocial support;
- Integration of mental health care for migrants in primary health-care settings;
- Capacity-building for mainstreaming interpretation, mediation, outreach to diverse populations and cultural diversity awareness in mental health services.
- IOM, Manual on Community-based Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Emergencies and Displacement, 2019. Describes the process of designing and implementing relevant programmes in the aftermath of an emergency and with displaced populations.
- Health Ministry Colombia, Together for a Life Free from Tuberculosis and HIV (Juntos por una vida libre de tuberculosis y VIH; in Spanish), 2015. This community agent manual seeks to guide and develop skills in all those who work with and from the community in health promotion, disease prevention and early detection of people with tuberculosis (TB) or HIV. It constitutes a practical tool for prevention of health problems that may arise in the community context.
- World Health Organization (WHO) Regional Office for Europe, Mental Health Promotion and Mental Health Care in Refugees and Migrants: Technical Guidance, 2018e.
- World Bank, Restoring Livelihoods with Psychosocial Support, n.d. This video series discusses how mental health and psychosocial support can effectively be integrated into livelihood and developmental programmes.
- Los objetivos sanitarios mundiales exigen un cambio hacia la equidad y hacia la inclusión de los migrantes; los sistemas de salud centrados en las personas y sensibles a las realidades de los migrantes aceleran las mejoras de los resultados sanitarios y reducen las desigualdades en la salud de las poblaciones.
- La promoción de la Agenda de Seguridad Sanitaria Mundial requiere la comprensión de la dinámica de la movilidad humana, junto con enfoques multisectoriales para elaborar intervenciones de salud pública que prevengan, detecten y combatan las amenazas sanitarias internacionales en todas las etapas de la movilidad.
- La innovación tecnológica y social, como las tecnologías basadas en la telefonía móvil y en Internet para los dispensadores de servicios de salud y los migrantes, puede utilizarse para respaldar la conexión de los migrantes con sus familias y para vincularlos con la información sanitaria y los servicios de salud.
- Todos los migrantes, sea cual sea su situación, necesitan acceso a atención de salud mental y apoyo psicosocial, además de los servicios de salud física, y la respuesta a esa necesidad contribuye al logro de resultados sociales, económicos y culturales positivos para los migrantes, sus familias, las comunidades y las sociedades de los países de origen y de destino.