Normas, factores y discriminación de género

In recent years, however, pervasive social and cultural norms that see women and girls facing day-to-day violence, or without equitable access to education, employment or social protection, have increasingly acted as factors involved in the decision to migrate. For instance, gang and domestic violence perpetrated against women and children is a principal driver of movements from countries like El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees [UNHCR], 2015). This has caused a shift from migration being primarily male, particularly among those using irregular pathways, to more diverse patterns involving women, families and unaccompanied children (Hallock, Soto and Fix, 2018). This shift from a primarily male migration has presented challenges to the migration system in place that catered largely to men, particularly in reference to detention and family separations (see Separation of families).

Increases in the numbers of women migrating independently or as primary wage earners within their families can also be attributed to an increasing demand in feminized labour sectors overseas, such as nursing and other caregiving roles. Women may move ahead of their husbands and accumulate responsibilities to care (at a distance) for their family with a breadwinning role. Overseas domestic and care service is a common occupation for migrant women. As women in high-income countries enter the labour force in greater numbers, the demand for migrant women to perform domestic work and child/elder care services has also been increasing (see Gender and labour migration).

Sexual orientation and gender identity are also drivers of migration, especially when individuals experience direct or indirect discrimination (Maulik and Petrozzielo, 2017; IOM and UNHCR, 2016). Lesbian, gay, transgender and intersex persons (LGBTI) can suffer abuse based on gender and/or sexual orientation, such as honour crimes, exploitation and abuse, especially in countries where same-sex conduct is considered a criminal offence (UNHCR, 2011). Transgender and intersex individuals may also face persecution for not conforming with gender expectations and norms, as well as exclusion from education, employment opportunities and other services. In some instances, intersex individuals may be subject to unwanted surgery to “correct” their anatomy (UNHCR, 2011).

Given these reasons, it is common for LGBTI people to seek out a place with more progressive normative views. Factors such as sexual orientation and gender identity can also be further compounded by and intersect with other aspects of an individual’s identity, including race, religion, ethnicity and physical ability, leading to vulnerable situations that can prompt migration.

During conflict, GBV is frequently used as a weapon of war. It can be life threatening, and its often long-lasting consequences require a long-term response beyond the emergency phase. In situations where earning a livelihood is challenging, women and girls as well as men, boys and non-binary individuals are at risk of sexual exploitation and abuse in return for shelter and food, or even for their survival. While GBV can affect all people, globally women and girls are disproportionately affected by this violence (IOM, 2018).

For all of these reasons, all humanitarian interventions should be based on active consultation with affected populations and should consider gender dimensions and vulnerabilities, including sex, age, race, sexual orientation, gender identity, ethnicity, disabilities and risks of GBV (Sphere, 2018; IOM, 2018). For instance, in order to provide female-headed households with access to shelter and non-food items (NFIs), additional special measures might be necessary, such as ensuring privacy as well as safety and security, or taking into consideration caregiving and other responsibilities (more in Emergency response).

Preconceptions about gender groups, or inaccurate perceptions of them, can unfairly influence the treatment of different gender groups in crisis situations. For instance, the perception that women and girls are more inherently vulnerable may draw the focus of aid agencies away from men and boys. This can result in unaccompanied displaced men and boys being particularly vulnerable to psychological health issues due to isolation and unaddressed physical or mental trauma (Brun, 2017). Similarly, the perception that males need less help can result in scenarios where some boys are not seen as children and are subject to further physical checks that are not considered necessary for girls (Brun, 2017).

Displacement can also impact male-gendered roles, particularly in camps and camp-like settings. In such situations, with no access to employment, and where people are dependent on humanitarian assistance, the male-gendered role of “the main provider” or “protector of the family” is challenged (Birchall, 2016). For men travelling alone, there is often pressure from families to send money home, increasing the need to work. Inability to find work can directly affect individuals’ self-esteem and affect their perception of their own masculinity (Brun, 2017). This can result in securing informal and unprotected employment, where there is little bargaining power to assert labour rights or demand a specific wage (Brun, 2017).

LGBTI individuals face added challenges. Many have experienced or continue to experience targeted abuse and discrimination and may not wish to discuss their sexual orientation or gender identity with the protection community due to the fear of further repercussions (Rumbach, 2013). This can mean that their protection needs are not met (UNHCR, 2011). Reports from camps and camp-like settings indicate that, due to such fear, very few LGBTI refugees report harassment, exploitation and violence at the workplace, or termination from their work because of their sexual orientation or gender identity.