Admisión de trabajadores migrantes sobre la base de la oferta y la demanda

Todos los Estados regulan el acceso legal de los trabajadores migrantes al mercado laboral. Aunque cada gobierno tiene su propio sistema de admisión para seleccionar, contratar e integrar a los trabajadores migrantes, los criterios más fundamentales para el acceso de estos trabajadores a los mercados laborales internos suelen basarse ya sea en la cantidad (escala o número) o en la calidad (selección).

En un enfoque basado en la demanda, los empleadores deben demostrar la necesidad de trabajadores migrantes, por lo general fundamentando la escasez de mano de obra nacional mediante sondeos del mercado de trabajo. Los permisos de trabajo pueden utilizarse para gestionar la entrada de trabajadores extranjeros. En un sistema basado en la oferta, los propios migrantes ponen en marcha el proceso de admisión, a menudo acogiéndose a una cuota o con sujeción a un límite máximo, y pueden solicitar la admisión sin tener necesariamente una oferta de trabajo. En este enfoque, los gobiernos tendrán herramientas, tales como cuotas y sistemas de puntos, para atraer a trabajadores extranjeros con determinadas cualificaciones a los sectores en que tengan déficits persistentes de trabajadores nacionales.

Gestión del mercado de trabajo
Labour market tests, work permits and quotas

Regulating the entry of migrant workers has two goals. The first is to meet labour market needs; the second is to avoid negative impacts on the local workforce. The main mechanisms, sometimes used in combination, are labour market tests, work permits and quotas (or ceilings). In a demand-driven approach, before recruiting a foreign worker, labour market tests are administered, in which local employers must first demonstrate that certain vacancies cannot be filled by the local workforce. This ensures that hiring migrant workers will not negatively affect the employment of local workers.

Although there are different types of labour market tests, employers seeking foreign workers are usually given a period in which they must advertise a vacancy with the public employment agency. Generally, the employer must demonstrate proof that no matching workers from within the local workforce can be found within the allotted time. Employers may also be required to undertake active local recruitment efforts, such as attending job fairs or carrying out labour market research. However, such requirements may be reduced or waived when official data show significant and persistent shortages in the local workforce of a given locality or economic sector (OECD, 2014a).

Example
Labour market test in Canada and the Russian Federation
  • An employer in Canada may need to obtain a labour market impact assessment (LMIA) before hiring a temporary migrant worker. This document is required to prove that there is no Canadian or permanent resident who can fill the job. The migrant worker can only apply for a work permit once his or her employer has secured the LMIA attached to the job offer letter and work contract (Government of Canada).
  • The Russian Federation has also set up a dual system of authorization for employment. While migrant workers need to apply for work permits, employers are obliged to acquire licenses to employ migrant workers. This system is used to regulate the inflow of migrant workers into selected sectors or localities (Baruah and Cholewinski, 2006).

While labour market tests are applied to give priority to local workers, many governments are also applying other instruments to achieve the optimal balance and scale of labour migration. One example of such an instrument is the use of temporary work permits, which typically restrict the migrant to a specific employer and period of contract, requiring a new application and fulfilment of another labour market test in case of a change of employer. Some countries offer open work permits to certain categories of labour migrants, permitting the migrant to work for any employer over a prescribed period of time.

Another approach used to regulate the number of migrant workers is through placing limits on the overall influx of migrant workers by means of a quota, expressed either as an absolute value or a share of the total workforce. Quotas may be based on occupation (following labour shortage estimates), on specific bilateral agreements, or more generally on national demographic needs.

Both work permits and quotas have advantages and disadvantages from the point of view of effective labour market management. Quotas may serve as a clear reference framework while signalling government’s policy objectives. The system can also be used as a management tool, either to restrict the inflow of migrant workers into certain sectors and occupations, or to attract certain skillsets and qualifications by waiving labour market tests for migrant workers arriving as part of a quota. However, in the latter scenario, there is no assurance that the migrant worker will be employed in the defined sector or occupation. At the same time, quotas and work permits may reduce the ability to react to changes in the labour markets in a timely and flexible manner.

Good Practice
Foreign worker levy in Singapore

The levy is a pricing mechanism to regulate the number of migrant workers in Singapore. Each sector – construction, manufacturing, marine shipyard, processing and service – has different levy requirements depending on the worker’s qualifications and the number of work permit holders hired. Levy rates are adjusted regularly and subject to a dependency ratio ceiling (quota), indicating the maximum ratio of migrant workers that a company can employ in a given sector. For example, if the manufacturing sector has a quota of 60 per cent, up to 60 per cent of a manufacturing company’s total workforce may consist of migrants.

If migrant workers meet the highly skilled criteria, then the government will reduce the employer’s levy bill and extend the maximum period of employment. There are different pathways to obtain highly skilled status for each sector, but the process typical requires proof of diploma, educational credentials or test certificates.

Fuente

Government of Singapore, Ministry of Manpower.

Policy Approaches
Regulating the quantity of migrant workers
  • Consider the growing diversity of labour markets and develop tailor-made approaches to regulate migrants’ access to the domestic labour market.
  • Administer labour market tests to identify needs for migrant workers based on labour shortages in certain localities and specific sectors.
  • Waive or reduce market test requirements when official data demonstrate significant and persistent shortage of workers in the workforce of a given locality or economic sector.
  • Apply quotas based on explanations that are objective and evidence-based, rather than arbitrary indicators.
Assessing skills and qualifications

Destination countries are increasingly acknowledging that general access controls, such as work permits and quotas, should be accompanied by some tools for attracting migrants with specific skills or qualifications, particularly in areas with persistent labour and/or skills shortages.

Example
Qualitative labour shortages in Europe and the United Kingdom
  • The European Parliament produced a list of “bottleneck occupations” in which employers had particular problems in recruiting workers. These included welders and metal workers, carpenters, plumbers, cooks, waiters or sales assistants, due to unattractive working conditions. Shortages in medical specialists and nurses were due primarily to insufficient labour mobility, while difficulties hiring scientists, engineers and IT professionals were caused by the lack of highly skilled migrant workers. The list, analysed through vacancy data across the region, demonstrated the fact that some sectors were less capable of achieving labour equilibrium, or at least that job vacancies took longer to fill, despite the ample supply of workers in quantitative terms. The European example demonstrates that labour market tests should be complemented by more targeted programmes (Martin et al., 2015).
  • The Migration Advisory Committee (MAC), which provides independent, evidence-based advice on migration issues to the Government of the United Kingdom, has been commissioned to produce the Shortage Occupation List (SOL). The Committee found care workers and nursing assistants to be among those medium-skilled occupations facing a shortage of suitable labour that can be supplemented with migrant workers. However, if made more attractive to United Kingdom workers – by increasing salaries, for instance – such occupations might not need to rely on overseas workers. Other occupations in the list also include butchers, bricklayers and welders. Minor review of SOL takes place annually, with a major review every three years (Migration Advisory Committee, 2020).

A points-based system evaluates the suitability of candidates by assigning scores for skills, academic and professional qualifications, language proficiency and in some cases financial resources for the initial period. Such composite criteria were originally developed with a purpose of locating permanent immigrants with a specific set of skills who could be successfully integrated into the national labour market. In most cases, points-based systems do not require a job offer prior to application. This allows countries to react faster to the volatile labour market, as often the points are based on occupational demand. For instance, in a case of undersupply, countries can easily tap into a reserve pool of pre-approved applicants. In a case of oversupply, countries can also undergo a second-tier selection by adding further criteria (such as having a job offer) or conducting interviews.

However, many points-based migrants end up taking on jobs that do not necessarily correspond to their skills. Points-based systems are mostly limited to highly skilled migrant workers, including practices from Canada, New Zealand and Australia, as explained below.

Good Practice
Points-based system
  • Canada was the first country to introduce a points-based system in 1967, and since then maintains a high per capita rate of permanent labour migration. The country launched a comprehensive express entry system in 2015, under which applicants can express an interest to work in Canada by setting up an online profile. This profile is then analysed in terms of core competencies, including level of qualifications, work experience and language proficiency (OECD, 2016a). Those who make it to the pool of candidates are then ranked according to the specific needs of Canada’s provinces. This system proved to reduce hiring time from two years to six months, and is more responsive to specific market needs (OECD, 2016a).
  • New Zealand and Australia started using two-tier points-based systems in 2003 and 2012, respectively, to automatically process a relatively large number of preliminary applications through an expression of interest procedure. Those scoring above a mark or meeting specific qualifications for a given skill category are invited to apply for a residence permit and undergo a thorough verification process. Those who scored below the mark are subsequently rescreened to assess their employability potential. As many as 60 per cent of all skilled migrants in New Zealand and 57.7 per cent of skill/business category migrants in Australia were admitted and employed through this scheme (OECD, 2014a).
Policy Approaches
Meeting the needs for skills
  • Offer incentives to attract specific workers into sectors with persistent shortages.
  • Consider instituting points-based systems based on your country’s specific labour needs, so that employers can reduce hiring time, remain competitive and more responsive to the market.
  • Consider providing a pathway to permanent residence as an incentive for temporary migrant workers of all skill levels
Medidas para mejorar la integración en el mercado de trabajo

Las medidas de integración tempranas ayudan a los trabajadores migrantes a incorporarse al mercado laboral. Estas medidas comienzan antes de la partida. Una de ellas consiste en informar a los migrantes sobre el país de destino, y específicamente sobre sus derechos y deberes como trabajadores (véase el capítulo Integración y cohesión social).

En la mayoría de los países, las medidas generales de apoyo al mercado de trabajo están disponibles, lamentablemente, solo para los migrantes que son residentes permanentes. Además, los programas de capacitación, aprendizaje y desempleo elaborados para la sociedad en general no suelen tener en cuenta las necesidades específicas de los migrantes, como la ayuda para superar las barreras lingüísticas, la información clara y exacta sobre las normas culturales y los mecanismos informales de búsqueda de empleo. Las mujeres migrantes tropiezan con dificultades y barreras adicionales, incluido un mayor riesgo de descualificación. Deberían adoptarse medidas específicas para elevar su empleabilidad y su participación en la fuerza de trabajo (véase más información sobre el género y la migración laboral).

Policy Approaches
Facilitating labour market integration
  • Provide integration services as soon as possible for migrant workers, including language and civic knowledge courses.
  • In situations where unemployment programmes, such as training or apprenticeships are available only or mostly to citizens and permanent residents, increase incentives to broaden the scope of such programmes for migrants as well.
  • Identify the needs and strengths of migrant workers at individual levels to be able to provide relevant support tools (such as language courses, social orientation programmes and skill tests).
To Go Further
Reconocimiento de competencias y cualificaciones

Cuando una persona presenta su candidatura para un empleo en otro país, el empleador puede evaluar sus credenciales de formación o capacitación (OIT, 2016). Sin embargo, muchas personas no poseen certificados o no pueden aportar pruebas de sus competencias y cualificaciones. Esto las pone en desventaja cuando se presentan para un puesto (OIT, 2016). La falta de reconocimiento puede dificultar aún más a los trabajadores migrantes la búsqueda de un trabajo que corresponda a sus cualificaciones y a su experiencia laboral en otros países. Estas situaciones son también oportunidades perdidas para la comunidad de acogida y su mercado de trabajo. Con frecuencia, los trabajadores migrantes no tienen más alternativa que aceptar un trabajo con un nivel de cualificación mucho menor, a veces incluso peligroso, mal remunerado y con largas jornadas de trabajo (OIT, 2016).

Estas circunstancias conducen a menudo a la descualificación, o la pérdida de las competencias y los conocimientos del migrante tras un periodo importante de desempleo o subempleo en un nuevo país. Por ejemplo, en los países de la Unión Europea, alrededor del 40% de los nacionales de terceros países con niveles de instrucción altos trabajan en empleos que están por debajo de su nivel de estudios. La comunidad internacional ha ofrecido nuevas orientaciones para el reconocimiento de los títulos extranjeros (véase más información al respecto en la sección Instrumentos, iniciativas y diálogos internacionales del presente capítulo). Sin embargo, algunas normas nacionales de reconocimiento de competencias y títulos extranjeros pueden no ser compatibles con las establecidas a nivel internacional, creando nuevas lagunas en la garantía de la calidad y los sistemas de acreditación (OCDE, 2015).

Good Practice
Recognition of migrant workers’ skills and qualifications
  • A growing number of Zanzibar locals are migrating to the Middle East in search of employment opportunities. However, they are finding it challenging to secure decent jobs abroad without formal qualifications. To address this issue, the Vocational Training Authority (VTA) worked closely with the international community to develop Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL), a process to identify, document, assess and certify formal, informal and non-formal learning outcomes against standards in education and training. Through RPL, Zanzibar VTA authorities selected six priority occupations, including masonry, mechanics and welding, which typically have a large portion of the labour force training and working in the informal sectors. Thousands of Zanzibar workers were then awarded with an official certification of their skills and qualifications (ILO, 2019b).
  • The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Qualifications Reference Framework (AQRF) is an instrument for recognizing skills and labour mobility in ASEAN countries. Eight levels of competency were designed under the framework and these levels have been agreed among all ASEAN Member States. The AQRF is voluntary and consists of two labour mobility tools: mutual recognition arrangements, which facilitate the mobility of skilled professionals within ASEAN States; and mutual recognition of skills, which focuses on technical/vocational skills.
  • In light of the increased shortage of skilled workers, the German Federal Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs promotes measures to achieve sustainable integration of migrants into the labour markets. The ESF-Qualification in the Context of the Federal Recognition Law offers a recognition structure and support services for migrants, the Integration through Qualification Programme, to help them get their foreign qualifications recognized and ultimately pursue their careers as skilled migrant workers.
Policy Approaches
Promoting labour market integration through the recognition of skills and qualifications
  • Put in place effective processes for the development, matching and recognition of skills, in order to prevent deskilling, especially among low- and medium-skilled workers.
  • Determine migrant workers’ skills by assessing not only their formal credentials but also previous work experience in origin countries and elsewhere.
  • Follow international standards when developing a national framework for the recognition of skills and foreign qualifications. This ensures mutual recognition while preventing further gaps and inconsistencies in accreditation systems.
  • Establish professional boards to help create licensing and certification schemes and to facilitate accreditation processes for certain occupations in the country.
  • Strengthen the transparency and overall capacity of national institutions that deal with recognizing migrant workers’ skills and foreign qualifications, in order to increase quality control and compliance.
  • Consider offering skills trainings in parallel with initiatives to facilitate the recognition of skills and qualifications. This could be a way to integrate migrants into the labour market while providing them with new skills and opportunities in destination countries.
Mensajes clave
  • Los criterios más fundamentales para regular y facilitar el acceso de los trabajadores migrantes al mercado laboral interno son la escasez cuantitativa o cualitativa de trabajadores.
  • Los sondeos del mercado de trabajo se realizan con frecuencia para demostrar que determinadas vacantes no pueden ser llenadas con la fuerza laboral local únicamente.
  • Las cuotas ponen un tope al número de trabajadores migrantes que puede haber en los sectores más atractivos, pero deberían someterse a revisiones y ajustes constantes que tengan en cuenta la situación del mercado laboral.
  • Los países pueden estudiar la posibilidad de utilizar un enfoque basado en la oferta para atraer a determinados trabajadores migrantes a sectores con escasez cualitativa persistente. Un ejemplo de estos enfoques es el sistema de puntos.
  • Para facilitar y promover la incorporación de los trabajadores migrantes en los mercados laborales, conviene aplicar medidas de integración tempranas.
  • Cuando no se reconocen las competencias de los trabajadores migrantes, se los aboca a aceptar empleos que requieren un nivel de formación mucho más bajo, con la consiguiente descualificación. A este respecto son cruciales los procesos transparentes que reconocen las competencias y credenciales de esos trabajadores.

 

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