In a migration-related context, GBV can take different forms: the most common are sexual, physical or psychological violence. It can also include harassment, unwanted physical contact or survival sex; verbal violence (that is, offensive, insulting or derogatory language); and non-verbal violence (that is, threatening behaviour, sexually suggestive gestures or staring), and the like (International Labour Organization [ILO], 2016). GBV can be perpetrated by migration actors, including (knowingly or unknowingly) by some border authorities, smugglers and recruitment agents (see Gender and border management). It can also be perpetrated by fellow migrants, who may be partners or those met in transit, workplace or accommodation sites.
Gender-based violence
VAW is driven by social and cultural attitudes and perceptions that treat women as subservient to men. Worldwide, 30 per cent of women aged 15 and older have experienced either physical and/or sexual violence by either an intimate partner or a non-partner at some point in their lives (UN Women, 2021). VAW can manifest as female genital mutilation (FGM), forced or early marriage, and domestic or other types of violence, the risk of which increases as a result of other factors such as sexual orientation and single motherhood (IOM, 2013; IOM GMDAC, 2018). For these reasons, VAW can be a driver of migration. But while VAW is a product of gender inequalities, migration can continue or increase imbalances of power and the risk of violence, particularly due to limited access to and control over opportunities and resources (IOM, 2013; IOM, 2018).
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Source
IOM, 2013.
While GBV disproportionately affects women and girls, it also affects other gender groups. As discussed in Gender in crisis and post-crisis contexts, LGBTI migrants can face heightened violence in situations of crises, where families might apply pressure on the individual to conform to traditional gender roles (IOM, 2013; IOM, 2018). Gender-based myths and stigma can simultaneously be both a cause and product of GBV as a result of power imbalances and the social isolation it creates. For instance, the mobility of men and boys may be restricted out of fear of violence or harassment in border spaces. As well, men and boys are prevented from meeting in groups for fear of the perception that they will be violent (Brun, 2017).
The negative physical, sexual, mental/psychosocial, socioeconomic and legal consequences of GBV for the person experiencing can be both short and long term. The consequences can reach beyond the individual and affect the entire families and communities. All survivors of GBV have the right to receive compassionate care and support that addresses the harmful consequences of violence. This support includes multisectoral services such as health-care services, psychosocial support, safety and security options, legal support and access to justice, and economic and social reintegration (IOM, 2018).
Policy Approaches
Prevention to address gender-based violence in migration
- Establish a clear gender-based violence (GBV) prevention strategy that includes working with migrants and displaced communities to address detrimental and harmful gender norm.
- Build the capacity of institutions and individuals at the national and local level to promote gender equality and address perceptions and behaviours around gender, violence and power.
- Undertake sensitization and awareness raising with migrants as well as with local communities and authorities.
- Train local and national institutions to develop and implement confidential reporting systems and zero tolerance policies.
- Establish effective referral systems that involve multi-stakeholder coordination between State and non-State actors. Mapping the needs of GBV victims is a prerequisite to ensuring that these can be met by access to or referral by different service providers.
Good Practice
Working with civil society to prevent gender-based violence
There are many good practices that involve working with civil society organizations to prevent gender-based violence (GBV) against migrants and refugees. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Youth Living Peace programme works with not only adolescent girls and women but also boys and men to address the root cause of violence, encouraging every individual to change attitudes about gender equality, use of violence and healthy relationships. Through a myriad of group activities, including school-wide campaigns, the community becomes well informed about available reporting mechanisms for those who have been exposed to violence and how to help. The programme also contributes to a more informed environment, advocating for the development and implementation of policies to prevent and respond to violence against all gender groups.
Source
Hassink, 2015.
Risks of forced labour and trafficking in persons
Around 24.9 million people are in a situation of forced/compulsory labour in various sectors, including domestic work, construction, factories, on farms and fishing boats and in the sex industry (ILO and Walk Free Foundation, 2017). Women make up 99 per cent of victims of forced labour in the commercial sex industry and 58 per cent of the victims in other sectors. Almost one in four victims of forced labour were exploited outside of their country of residence (ILO and Walk Free Foundation, 2017).
The nature of forced labour among female migrants is commonly an extension of the gendered discrimination in the sectors they work. For example, exploitation and forced labour is prominent in domestic work, a sector widely not seen as “labour” in the traditional sense. As such, full and comprehensive labour rights are not recognized as applying to domestic work, making it vulnerable to exploitative practices and forced labour. The gendered discrimination that considers female labour as lower skilled and less valuable can also lead to exploitation and forced labour due to barriers that prevent female migrants’ access to regular migration into decent work (see Gender and labour migration). Female migrants employed in low status, informal and poorly paid work are at high risk of exploitative conditions and forced labour practices.
To Go Further
- International Labour Organization (ILO), Indicators of Forced Labour, 2012. These indicators are intended to help government officials and other stakeholders to identify persons who might be in a forced labour situation and who need urgent assistance.
The risk of trafficking in persons can also be exacerbated by gender-based discrimination, including limited access to economic activity, domestic violence, or sexual or other forms of crises (Global Alliance Against Traffic in Women [GAATW], 2010a). Heightened expectations (often gendered) to work and provide for the family can lead to feelings of desperation that increase the risk of trafficking.
Many cultural norms tend to identify women and girls as more likely to be victims, which can have an impact on the number of women and girls identified as trafficked. Although most victims of human trafficking for sexual exploitation are indeed women, a higher proportion of victims trafficked for forced labour are men. In fact, more and more males are being identified as victims of trafficking in persons (CTDC, n.d.). However, the shame associated with being tricked or lied may lead men to avoid self-identifying or being identified as trafficked, thus preventing them from demanding and accessing much-needed services (GAATW, 2010b; ILO, 2016). Moreover, many services, such as shelters, are not always as readily available to men (see more in Trafficking in persons and associated forms of exploitation and abuse).
Risks in transit
Migrants can face significant threats in transit (Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights [OHCHR], 2016). The phase of transit can be physically arduous and legally fraught, leaving migrants open to diminished health and increased risk of exploitation and manipulation. Pregnant women are at particular risk, in addition to the very old and the very young (OHCHR, 2016).
Women and girls are at risk of violence and harassment during transit as evidenced by some research indicating that sexual violence is inevitable, whether perpetrated by criminal guards, migrants or officials (OHCHR, 2016; Birchall, 2016). Women may feel compelled or forced to exchange sex for transportation, food or accommodation (IOM, 2013). Sites of transit are often locations that expose migrants to increased risks, sleeping outside or in structures without privacy or security (OHCHR, 2016). Women migrating through irregular routes have reported that in preparation for the risk of sexual attacks, they purchase emergency contraception or take contraceptive injections ahead of the journey (United Nations Secretary General, 2017). Many women travel with paid male companions in order to deter abuse and exploitation (Hennebry, Grass and Mclaughlin, 2016). Sexual violence against men and boys is also prevalent, including sexual torture, genital violence and castration (Women’s Refugee Commission [WRC], 2019).
Policy Approaches
Addressing gender risks in transit
- Develop and implement targeted efforts to prevent, mitigate and respond to sexual violence and exploitation inside and outside of the formal reception system.
- Develop the capacity of national institutions to prevent, mitigate and respond to sexual violence.
- Enhance the capacity of service providers and frontline workers to provide survivor-centred services that prevent and respond to sexual violence, including enhancing awareness of sexual violence against men and boys, reducing stigmatization of female and male survivors and improving appropriate and timely referral of survivors.
- Expand service provision for male, female, LGBTI and other non-binary survivors, including clinical management of the effects of sexual violence, mental health care and psychosocial support, legal aid and access to protection.
Source
Women’s Refugee Commission (WRC), 2019.
Key messages
- Labour exploitation and forced labour are extreme outcomes of gender-based discrimination that direct female and male migrants into informal and poorly protected labour sectors.
- Gender-based violence (GBV) can impact migrants throughout migration, whether as a driver for the decision to migrate, as a risk along the migration route, or as an experience in countries of destination. The risk of GBV for women and girls is heightened as a result of the multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination they may face, including on the basis of their gender, migratory status, ethnicity, sexuality age, physical ability, race and religion.
- Gender-based discrimination and detrimental norms can heighten the risk of trafficking while also impacting the accuracy of the way that trafficking is measured and responded to.
- Women and girls are at particular risk of violence during transit as many consider sexual violence as an inevitable consequence of migrating through irregular channels.