Return migration takes place under a variety of circumstances. How the process of return is best governed depends on the conditions in and perspectives of the host country, the transit country and the country of origin.

Return migration can be categorized in different ways:

  • according to the intended and real length of stay in the country of return (that is, country of origin), ranging from temporary return to permanent return;
  • according to the various ways in which the returns take place.
    • Voluntary return, meaning the assisted or independent return to the country of origin, transit or another country based on the voluntary decision of the returnee:
      • Spontaneous voluntary return: the voluntary, independent return of a migrant or a group of migrants to their country of origin, usually without the support of States or other international or national assistance;
      • Assisted voluntary return and reintegration (AVRR): voluntary return with administrative, logistical or financial support, including reintegration assistance.
    • Forced return, meaning the return of an individual, against their will, to the country of origin, transit or to a third country that agrees to receive the person, generally carried out on the basis of an administrative or judicial act or decision.

In addition, return migration can be subcategorized according to the reason for migrating and the situation that returning migrants find themselves in. These subcategories are not mutually exclusive and include, among others:

  • Migrant workers, students, asylum seekers, refugees, internally displaced persons (IDPs), and so forth;
  • Migrants in regular and irregular situations;
  • Migrants in vulnerable situations;

Return migration involves more than just the simple movement of people. In particular, it has implications for migrant reintegration in the country of origin. For this reason, the issues raised in this chapter will be addressed in a more comprehensive way that includes reintegration, as well as the movement of people.

To Go Further
Perspectives of host countries, transit countries and countries of origin

Host countries, transit countries and countries of origin have different roles and responsibilities with regard to return and may face different sorts of challenges as well as opportunities. An increasing number of countries do not fall into one of these categories, but rather into two or all three. As a result, these roles and responsibilities may be subject to change and require learning and adaptation processes.

Host countries and transit countries

Host countries are responsible for providing clear national laws and regulations that establish the terms and conditions of entry and stay, including access to asylum, in accordance with international law. They are expected to demonstrate to their citizens that the rule of law is respected. This will serve to maintain public support for regular immigration and asylum policies and will avoid weakening public confidence in the general competence of the government (Newland and Salant, 2018). Therefore, the governments of host countries have to pursue solutions for persons who do not have a regular status on their territory and for those who, for some reason, lose their right to stay (for instance, those who break the laws of the country or lose the ability to support themselves as required in their visa). This needs to be done in accordance with their obligations under international law, including the obligation to guarantee the principle of non-refoulement, to uphold the prohibition of collective expulsion, and to ensure the best interests of the child (for more, see International law and principles in this chapter).

Increasingly, countries of transit assume similar roles and obligations. Many international migrants become unable to continue their journey to their intended destination and become stranded along the way. They may have limited access to basic assistance and protection, and find themselves vulnerable to violence, exploitation and abuse. They may become unable to effectively enjoy even basic human rights, especially if they are unable or unwilling to regularize their status or to return to their countries of origin. If they lack the financial resources, or the necessary travel documents, they may resort to irregular onward migration.

Policy Approaches
Managing the presence of stranded migrants and migrants with irregular status in host and transit countries

Solutions for persons who have irregular status may include policies or programmes that:

  • Establish referral mechanisms for their protection;
  • Undertake awareness raising on safe and regular migration;
  • Regularize their presence (further details in Integration and social cohesion);
  • Facilitate their voluntary return and sustainable reintegration (further details in Voluntary return in this chapter);
  • Enforce their removal in full respect of human rights (further details in Forced return in this chapter).

To ensure that the return of migrants happens in a safe and dignified way, migrants should have the opportunity to make informed decisions about their return. Counselling before departure enables potential returnees to understand all the viable and legal options available to them, as well as the conditions of their return and reintegration options. Return counselling may, but does not have to, result in the migrant’s decision to return. It can also result in a decision to return which may be freely changed at a later stage. Ideally, counselling takes place both prior to departure (to support the return decision-making process), as well as after arrival (to support the reintegration process).

Policy Approaches
Supporting migrants to make informed decisions
  • Offer return and reintegration counselling that is age-, gender- and diversity-sensitive to migrants. Ensure that this counselling provides timely, unbiased and reliable information on available rights and options in the host or transit country and in the country of origin, including information on available support mechanisms;
  • Establish policies that require qualified professionals to make an assessment in the case of migrants who may lack the capacity to make an informed decision about their return. The assessment should establish the extent to which migrants can make an informed decision and, if lacking the capacity to do so, who could legally take the decision on their behalf;
  • Establish a referral system to accessible and approachable entities for migrants who are in vulnerable situations and who need specialized support and protection.
Countries of origin

For countries of origin, return may present both opportunities and challenges. They are obliged under international law to respect their nationals’ right to return. As well, the return of talented nationals with new skills can support the country’s reconstruction and development. On the other hand, return can have negative effects on countries of origin, since the returning migrants stop sending remittances home. Some countries may also experience difficulties in absorbing returnees in their economic and social systems, in particular when returnees came back in large numbers, and in post-conflict or crisis situations (read more in the interlinkage Return and reintegration in complex environments).

Policy Approaches
Facilitating the return and reintegration of the country’s own nationals

Countries of origin can facilitate the return and reintegration of their nationals in many ways. They can:

  • Create conditions that allow their own nationals to return in safety and with dignity without any fear of harassment, discrimination, arbitrary detention, physical threat or prosecution on account of having left or remained outside the country;
  • Inform the diaspora about the situation in the country;
  • Provide support to establish migrants’ identity and issue travel documents;
  • Consider the needs of returnees and receiving communities as well as national development priorities when designing reintegration strategies;
  • Establish mechanisms to collect, monitor and evaluate data throughout the entire return process in line with data protection standards in order to understand the impact of return and to inform ongoing and future interventions;
  • Establish feedback mechanisms to allow migrants to express their views on the assistance received in an open and confidential manner.
Cooperation among States

Return can have significant financial, humanitarian, security and development implications for host and transit countries as well as countries of origin. For this reason, international cooperation is vital to ensure that return is safe and orderly, and that reintegration is sustainable both for migrants and the societies to which they return. Readmission of migrants is inextricably linked to the return and reintegration processes, and is part of migration management in countries of origin, transit and destination. When migrants are returning to their country of origin, readmission is a State obligation under international law: States are duty-bound to admit and readmit their nationals (read more on the instruments guaranteeing the right to return to one’s own country in International law and principles in this chapter).

Glossary

readmission

Act by a State accepting the re-entry of an individual (own national, national of another State – most commonly a person who had previously transited through the country or a permanent resident – or a stateless person).

More in Glossary

Institutional dialogue fosters constructive and balanced exchanges between stakeholders involved at different stages of the return process. It promotes a common understanding of challenges related to return and reintegration, and it informs and influences policy development. Furthermore, several international treaties include provisions on cooperation with respect to return, readmission and reintegration (see the policy approaches box below).

As in any form of international cooperation, finding reciprocal interests is important for countries to cooperate on return and readmission. The interests found in such cooperation are often asymmetrical, as negotiations tend to be driven by host countries and cooperation generates social and financial costs for countries of origin and transit.

Cooperation with regard to readmission might include facilitating access to documentation, including travel documents, or helping with the identification of a migrant. Although readmission cooperation can take place on an ad hoc basis, it works better when jointly established procedures are in place, such as through formal or informal readmission agreements.

Glossary

readmission agreement

A bilateral or multilateral agreement between States that establishes, in a reciprocal manner, the basis and procedures, for one State to promptly and orderly return non-nationals, who do not or no longer fulfil the conditions for entry or stay on its territory, to their home State or a third State, most commonly a State through which they have transited or a State in which they had permanent residence.

More in Glossary

Negotiation of readmission agreements may involve discussions on the kinds of support needed to implement the readmission agreement and the technical or financial incentives for countries of origin and transit. A readmission agreement:

  • Sets reciprocal obligations for the States that are party to it. A readmission agreement usually concerns the parties’ own nationals, but may also cover non-nationals and stateless persons under certain conditions, such as when one of the parties was a transit country on the irregular migrant’s route.
  • Ideally includes a “non-affection clause” confirming the applicability of, and respect for, other international obligations, including respect for fundamental rights.
  • Can also define the data protection standards applicable between the parties.
  • Upon signature, enables setting deadlines and procedures, thereby shortening the return and readmission process, during which migrants are sometimes placed in detention.

These agreements are generally drafted in consideration of international human rights law and data protection. In some international treaties (such as the Organization of African, Caribbean and Pacific States–European Union Agreement of 2021, which sets the political, economic and sectorial framework for cooperation for the following twenty years), the obligation under international law for States to readmit their own nationals is recalled (read more on International law and principles in this chapter).

General challenges to readmission include:

  • The lack of national legislation, structures and institutions to effectively negotiate and implement readmission agreements;
  • The reluctance of countries to readmit their nationals or third-country nationals and to enter into readmission agreements;
  • The inadequate understanding and implementation of the concept of readmission;
  • The lack of data and research on readmission;
  • Inadequate protection of persons subject to readmission procedures.

Operational challenges include:

  • Difficulties in obtaining necessary documentation from countries of origin, due to reluctance to cooperate;
  • Lack of resources and technical means for issuing documents (for example, paper-based processes are time consuming and increase the risk of mistakes and lost data);
  • Identification challenges (such as a lack of biometric databases);
  • Coordination issues between different authorities in charge of return and readmission.

Cooperation between countries of origin and of destination or host countries can also focus on reintegration aspects. For instance, development partnerships can help to better target reintegration assistance and link it to existing programmes and schemes in the country of origin (read more in the interlinkage Reintegration and development). Governments of host countries might also help migrants to come back with assets, such as pensions, that they have generated or accumulated in host countries (Fonseca, Hart and Klink, 2015).

Policy Approaches
Fostering international cooperation on return and readmission
  • Engage in dialogue with transit and origin countries to identify mutual interests and develop joint initiatives (for example, programmes fostering regular pathways, such as visa facilitation or liberalization, or bilateral labour migration agreements, and other forms of technical or financial incentives);
  • Increase the evidence base for policymaking through research and data collection;
  • Develop the capacity of those in the field of return through awareness-raising campaigns, workshops and trainings.
  • Develop and implement bilateral, regional and multilateral cooperation frameworks and agreements, including readmission agreements, ensuring that return and readmission of migrants to their own country is safe, dignified and in full compliance with international human rights law;
  • Cooperate on identification of nationals and issuance of travel documents for safe and dignified return and readmission in cases of persons who do not have the legal right to stay on another State’s territory;
  • Foster institutional contacts between consular authorities and relevant officials from countries of origin and destination.
Source

The final three points were directly taken from Objective 21 of the Global Compact for Migration.

To Go Further

In order to promote a holistic approach to facilitating safe and dignified return, and sustainable reintegration, IOM has elaborated a policy on the full spectrum of return, readmission and reintegration. The policy provides principled guidance on developing and implementing laws and policies governing return migration in a manner consistent with international standards and practice. The approach of IOM to return, readmission and reintegration is based on a set of ten guiding principles (see the policy approaches box below). Although designed in the context of IOM policy and operations, these principles were also developed to guide policymakers and practitioners in the field of return, readmission and reintegration.

Policy Approaches
Guiding principles for the full spectrum of return, readmission and reintegration of international migrants

1. Rights-based approaches through active protection and upholding of migrant rights

  • Migrants are empowered to claim and avail themselves of their rights.
  • The capacity of duty bearers is enhanced with regard to their obligations to respect, protect and fulfil migrants’ rights, also contributing to more sustainable reintegration and better human development outcomes.
  • Each migrant has the opportunity to have their case assessed by competent authorities or specialized actors, to have any identified protection needs considered and addressed, and to receive timely and transparent information on migration pathways available to them.
  • Safeguards are in place for migrants in vulnerable situations who may have been subject to violence, exploitation or abuse or who may require specialized assistance due to specific health, psychosocial or protection needs.

2. Inclusion and diversity: Gender-responsive, child-sensitive and vulnerability-sensitive perspectives

  • The needs and perspectives of all migrants, including and in particular marginalized and more vulnerable groups, are properly understood and addressed.
  • The human rights of all migrants – regardless of sex, sexual orientation, gender, age, race, ethnicity, indigenous status and disability –­ are respected at all stages of the return, readmission and reintegration process.
  • Safeguards are in place for migrant children, including unaccompanied and separated minors.
  • Existing international legal obligations in relation to the rights of the child are respected, and the principle of the best interests of the child and the right of children to express their views and opinions are upheld.

3. Do no harm

  • Potential risks are fully evaluated, and mitigating measures elaborated, as the basis for any intervention. The goal is to ensure that assistance does not adversely impact reintegration.
  • Mitigating measures differ between contexts and focus on protecting and addressing the needs, in a mutually beneficial way, of both the individual migrant and the community the migrant returns to.

4. Migrant agency

  • Migrants are empowered to make informed decisions and exercise their agency.
  • Migrants’ free, prior and informed consent to the specific return modality or option available is respected.
  • In some cases, an assessment is needed to determine the extent to which a person is capable of taking a free and informed decision, and, if the person lacks such capacity, another person should be identified who could legally take the decision on their behalf.

5. Accountability

  • Mechanisms are in place to ensure that potential rights violations during return, readmission and reintegration processes are reported through appropriate channels, and to determine when mitigating measures or suspension of return and reintegration programmes is required.
  • Accountability systems are strengthened by promoting rights-based monitoring and by providing access to internal feedback and complaint mechanisms.

6. Confidentiality*

  • Privacy of migrants’ data is protected in accordance with international data protection standards.
  • Informed consent of migrants to processing their personal data is always sought.
  • Strict safeguards are in place for the handling of personal data.
  • All reasonable and necessary precautions are taken to preserve the confidentiality of personal data and the privacy of individuals.

7. Safe environments for return

  • The environment in countries of origin is conducive to a returnee’s personal safety.
  • Informed and rights-based decisions to return should be based on the general situation in the country of origin and each migrant’s individual vulnerabilities.
  • Provision of return assistance can be withheld where there are substantial grounds for believing that the environment in the country of return is too dangerous for individuals to return to.

8. Sustainability of reintegration

  • Reintegration is considered sustainable when returnees have reached levels of economic self-sufficiency, social stability within their communities and psychosocial well-being that allow them to cope with migration and remigration drivers. Having achieved sustainable reintegration, returnees are able to make further migration decisions as a matter of choice, rather than necessity.

9. Whole-of-government approach and government ownership

  • Horizontal and vertical policy coherence across all sectors and levels of government and alignment with development plans is ensured.
  • Enhanced cooperation across different sectors and between relevant ministries with different mandates and priorities.

10. Partnership and cooperation

  • Enhance the range and quality of return, readmission and reintegration assistance available to migrants.
  • Avoid duplication of efforts to support migrants.
  • Foster the sustainability of reintegration processes.
Source

IOM, 2021b.

Key messages
  • Return migration is governed by frameworks and regulations under international and national law that foresee specific roles and obligations for States.
  • The roles of States in the return process may vary according to the regional, national and individual contexts of each migrant. In particular, these roles will vary depending on whether the States are host countries, transit countries or countries of origin. Some forms of return, such as spontaneous return, happen with only little State involvement.
  • Return migration can be categorized in different ways, such as by length of (intended) stay in the country of return, voluntariness, available support, and the like.
  • In the context of international return, at least two States are involved; for this reason, close cooperation and partnership amongst them are of great importance.
  • Readmission of migrants is inextricably linked to the return and reintegration process and forms one part of migration management in countries of origin, transit and destination.
  • Countries of origin are obliged to readmit their nationals under international law.
  • An integrated and holistic approach to return, readmission and reintegration enables coherence across policies and alignment with international standards. The policy proposed by IOM on this topic takes such an approach.
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