Glossary

States have the right to decide who can stay on their territory, and conversely, who must leave. They may enforce this decision in cases where a person does not comply. There are certain limitations to a State’s right to decide on and implement a person’s forced return:

  • The State cannot expel its own nationals;
  • The State must respect international human rights and refugee law and standards, including the principle of non-refoulement.

The administrative act or judicial decision requiring a non-national to leave its territory is usually referred to as an expulsion order. The administrative act or judicial decision ordering the enforcement of the obligation to return through the State is called a removal order or deportation order.

In cases where a migrant has no legal entitlement to remain on a country’s territory, it is beneficial for States and migrants alike to grant a reasonable period for voluntary departure, as shown in figure 2:

Image / Video
Figure 2. The process from expulsion order to removal

Promoting assisted voluntary return and reintegration (AVRR) has many benefits:

  • For the migrant, AVRR allows for a more humane alternative to deportation and promotes sustainability of the reintegration process;
  • For the host or transit country, AVRR is more cost effective and administratively expedient than forced return;
  • For the country of origin, AVRR is politically more palatable and less sensitive than forced return and also supports the socioeconomic reinclusion of migrants.
Expulsions and safeguards
Glossary

expulsion

A formal act or conduct attributable to a State by which a nonnational is compelled to leave the territory of that State.

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Expulsions must:

  • Be in accordance with law;
  • Pursue a legitimate aim (that is, it must be necessary in a democratic society);
  • Be proportionate to the aim pursued.

Fair and efficient asylum systems are also necessary preconditions for lawful expulsions.

It is important to ensure that competent authorities take expulsion decisions in full compliance with international human rights law, including:

Policy Approaches
Procedural safeguards for expulsions

In order to ensure that an expulsion is not arbitrary, international human rights law has set forth a number of procedural safeguards:

  • Expulsions must not discriminate in purpose or effect on grounds of race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status;
  • The migrant must be given the right to representation and allowed to submit the reasons against his or her expulsion;
  • The migrant must be granted an effective remedy against the expulsion decision, either in the form of an appeal or a review; and the appeal, once filed, must immediately suspend the expulsion, until it is resolved.
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Removals and safeguards
Glossary

removal

Also referred to as deportation or, sometimes, expulsion, the act, following a deportation, expulsion or removal order by which a State physically removes a non-national from its territory to his or her country of origin or a third country after refusal of admission or termination of permission to remain.

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Removal orders should only be issued following consideration of individual circumstances with adequate justification in accordance with the law and international human rights standards (see Immigration enforcement and International law and principles in this chapter).

Migrants should clearly understand the grounds on which removal orders are based, the execution of removal orders, remedies available to challenge the validity of removal orders, reasonable time limits to challenge the order, and other relevant information including consequences of non-compliance (OHCHR, 2014).

Although no provisions in international law deal explicitly with the conditions surrounding removal, several international standards exist, in particular related to the right to be free from torture, inhumane and degrading treatment. For instance, during a removal process, special consideration should be given to human rights in terms of family life, the protection of children, (further details in Child migration and Family and migration), detention processes and facilities, if used (further details on detention in Human rights of migrants: An overview), and the protection of personal data (further details in Stage 2: Data, research and analysis for policymaking).

The most effective way to reinforce the accountability of those responsible for implementing removal operations are independent monitoring mechanisms. Independent monitoring mechanisms serve to:

  • Document the forced return operation, in particular with respect to any significant incidents that occur or any means of restraint used in the course of the operation;
  • Confirm that return does not violate migrants’ rights;
  • Ensure that returned migrants have access to effective complaint mechanisms and remedies;
  • Support the prompt investigation of all allegations of human rights violations.

Returning and receiving States should each establish independent mechanisms to monitor human rights in pre-removal and return processes and after migrants return.

Policy Approaches
Following due process in removal processes
  • Provide the removal order in accessible formats, in writing, and in a language the concerned migrants are known to understand;
  • Design removal processes where the deprivation of liberty is only used as a measure of last resort to ensure the enforcement of a removal order, and where it is preceded by less restrictive options;
  • Train immigration officials to ensure removals preserve the dignity of the individual and that the use of force is exceptional and limited to what is reasonably necessary, while never endangering the life or physical integrity of the individual;
  • Incorporate appropriate steps in removal processes which can be interrupted if the human rights of the migrant are compromised or if continuation of the return process would endanger the safety and dignity of the migrant or of the personnel carrying out the return;
  • Establish and cooperate with independent monitoring mechanisms to ensure the return operation is fully documented, complies with international standards, and informs migrants of their right to report violations, as well as of the reporting mechanism;
  • Set up a system to guarantee that all allegations of human rights violations during the process of return are promptly and impartially investigated, and that those responsible are brought to justice.
Good Practice
The European Union’s monitoring system for forced returns

The directive of the European Parliament and Council on returning illegally staying third-country nations (often referred to as the “Return Directive”) introduced an important fundamental rights safeguard for third-country nationals ordered to leave the European Union, obliging all European Union member States to implement a forced return monitoring system. This can include spot checks and monitoring of random samples, as long as the monitoring intensity is sufficiently close to guarantee overall efficiency of monitoring. It should also involve organizations or bodies different and independent from the authorities enforcing return (Council Directive 2008/115/EC, article 8[6]).

The European Border and Coast Guard Agency (Frontex) supports return monitoring by deploying experts (“return monitors”) who carry out independent monitoring of return operations to ensure compliance with fundamental rights (article 29 of European Union Regulation 2016/1624 – European Border and Coast Guard Regulation). The European Union Fundamental Rights Agency (FRA) publishes an annual overview of effective forced return monitoring systems across the European Union, and noted in 2019 that almost all European Union member States had established operational return monitoring systems, but that project funding and other factors may limit the effectiveness of monitoring.

To Go Further

 

Key messages
  • In cases where a migrant has no legal entitlement to remain on a country’s territory, voluntary return should be given preference over forced return.
  • States can order migrants to leave their territory and implement these decisions by way of removals, in accordance with international law and, in particular, international human rights obligations (including the principle of non-refoulement, the principle of non-discrimination, the prohibition of collective expulsion, the best interests of the child, the right to respect for private and family life, and the right to access to justice).
  • Due process in removals entails preserving the rights, safety and the dignity of the individual, with the use of force being an exceptional measure, limited to what is reasonably necessary, and never endangering the life or physical integrity of the individual.
  • Returning and receiving States should respectively establish independent mechanisms to monitor human rights in pre-removal and removal processes and after migrants return.
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