- Understand the intersections between youth migration and employment, education and integration
- Understand how to address the challenges youth face as potential migrants, recent migrants or as descendants of migrants
- Identify ways to consider youth when developing migration policy
Summary
Learning Objective
Learning objectives
Introduction
Youth in the context of migration
Young migrants, between the ages of 15 and 24, account for approximately 11.3 per cent of the total migrant population and 2.6 per cent among youth worldwide (United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs [UN DESA], 2020). For centuries, young people from around the world have migrated for different reasons, driven by often complex and intersectional factors. These include the pursuit of new cultural experiences; educational and employment opportunities; fleeing the impacts of conflict, disaster, poverty and climate change; or reuniting with their families.
Article / Quotes
youth
Persons between the age of 15 and 24.
Part of this group are youth under 18 years of age, who are legally children according to the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) (see Child migration). Young people’s desire to migrate seems to be intensifying in certain regions. The median age of international migrants worldwide has increased. However, in three regions – Oceania, Central and Southern Asia as well as Latin America and the Caribbean – the migrant population is becoming younger (UNDESA, 2020). In countries where fertility is low, the number of youth migrants as a percentage of total migration population also tends to be increasing. While youth migration has been primarily a feature associated with low- and middle-income countries, the increased level of youth unemployment recently experienced by high-income countries has also prompted significant migration among young people.
Image / Video
Figure 1. Young migrants (aged 15–24) as a share of migrant population per region
Source
UNDESA, 2020.
There are many drivers for temporary and permanent youth migration. These include economic factors such as high unemployment rates and a lack of decent and good quality work, as well as poverty. Some young migrants are seeking higher education or employment opportunities abroad. Others migrate to reunite with family members or to seek asylum. Internal youth migration from rural to urban areas is especially likely to be driven by widening gaps in employment opportunities, by the impact of environmental and climate change, or by the inability to acquire land or property (Maze, 2015).
When making policy to address youth migration, it is important to consider those who are thinking of moving, those who have already moved as well as those whose parents or grandparents migrated. Some youth will be accompanying migrating parents or other family members moving abroad, while others might be moving without family. Migrant youth who are under the age of 18 are migrant children (CRC, article 3). Such youth, especially those in irregular situations, face greater risks and are vulnerable to exploitation, violence and abuse (see Child migration). They may be unable to obtain health insurance or have limited access to both mental and physical health services (Zuroweste et al., 2016). That is to say, youth migrants experience many of the same challenges as other groups of migrants, but often in a different way than adult migrants.
The importance of managing youth migration
Migration can offer benefits to young migrants, in the form of education and higher wages. It can also benefit origin and destination communities through job creation and the transfer of capital and resources. For youth, realizing the benefits of migration depends on several factors, such as the structure and regulation of the labour market, access to training and apprenticeships, and the ability to find a job that matches their skills and education level (Solutions for Youth Employment, 2017).
Government policies and programmes can help maximize the benefits of migration for young populations. As well, policies that manage and promote the regular migration of youth can significantly influence socioeconomic growth. For example, high-income countries with aging populations and a declining workforce are likely to have an increasing demand for young workers. Facilitating migration in such situations will benefit both the migrants and the socioeconomic well-being of the destination country.
It is important to emphasize that while youth migration may provide benefits, it can also have negative implications for countries of origin. For instance, when appropriate policies and programmes are not put in place, migration can result in the departure of educated youth from their countries of origin. On the other hand, effective government policies can set youth on a path towards success, and in the future, those youth will be able to contribute significantly to their country. Policies and programmes to facilitate the return of skills and knowledge, as well as social and financial remittances, can create jobs and provide more opportunities in origin countries.
Evidence-based migration governance requires a strong data collection process. Further, disaggregated data helps governments create and enact policies and programmes that promote regular labour migration, learning mobility, social protection and (re)integration for young migrants in both origin and destination countries (International Labour Organization [ILO], 2017). As well, the collection of disaggregated data will make clear the direct links between youth, migration and other policy areas. As these links become more apparent, it is important for governments to realize that policy approaches should be coherent, and that they should be enacted in coordination with multisectoral strategies and programmes.
Key data sources
Migration data collection has been ineffective, especially as it relates to youth. In part, this is because no single methodology or system has been adopted worldwide. Data collection on young migrants is challenging, as the definitions of age categories vary between countries and data may be duplicated, incomplete or unreliable. For migrants under 18 years old, data are especially difficult to collect because those who are unaccompanied may go undetected and avoid registration by authorities. Some young migrants may claim that they are older than 18 in order to avoid being taken into custody. Others may not know their real age or may claim to be under 18 to benefit from the protections offered to children under international law (Migration Data Portal). The lack of effective data poses a major issue for migration management.
National sources
National data collection should be appropriately disaggregated and analysed to be useful for developing policies and programmes. Disaggregation is especially important for policymaking in the context of youth and migration. The data collection needs to be able to distinguish between young people migrating for education or work purposes, and family reunification, as well as distinguishing between children and those over 18 years of age (see Family and migration). Relevant data collection tools such as labour force surveys or educational data collection should be disaggregated by relevant demographic variables, especially age and gender.
From the perspective of origin countries, it is important to understand local labour market conditions and the youth unemployment rate, as well as structural deficiencies and related factors that might drive outward migration at the national level. In-depth analyses would help government officials to better understand specific labour needs by sector. Such analyses could also help to identify existing employment barriers, such as accessing employment services, and mentorship and training opportunities for youth entering the labour market.
In destination countries, data disaggregated by age and gender would be very useful. For instance, it would be extremely helpful to have disaggregated data on the distribution and characteristics of employment, on the areas of origin and working conditions of youth prior to and after migration, on social protection, on the level of education and skills, on health and access to health care, and on the living conditions of young migrants (or potential migrants). Data should be collected on labour market outcomes of young migrants (both at home and abroad) as well as on the relative costs and benefits of labour migration for youth and their families (Global Migration Group, 2014). All such data address issues that have policy implications, ranging from meeting education and training needs, to planning health-care, housing and welfare provisions.
Good Practice
Improved labour market indicators in Albania
In Albania, when the National Action Plan on Youth Employment was developed, it revealed a lack of quality national statistical data. After an initial survey, the Interdisciplinary Working Group on Labour Market Information Analysis was formed, including various ministries, workers’ and employers’ organizations. The working group conducted an ad hoc youth survey targeting young respondents (age 15–29) who had left continuous formal education and training. The data collected from the survey was used to design and implement coaching programs for various national partners.
Source
MDG Fund, 2013.
International sources
Data on youth and migration are limited in scope and inclusivity. Nonetheless, a number of relevant and regularly updated sources exist. The following sources contain valuable information on youth migrants:
- IOM Migration Data Portal, developed by the Global Migration Data Analysis Centre (GMDAC), serves as a unique access point to timely comprehensive migration statistics and reliable information about migration data globally. The page on children and young migrants in particular uses data primarily from the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA) and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) on child migrants (under 18) and young migrants (15–24), presented by country of destination.
- UN DESA International Migrant Stock presents estimates disaggregated by age, sex and country of origin. There are two separate age categories of young migrants: 15–19 and 20–24 years old.
- Database on Immigrants in OECD Countries (DIOC) and non-OECD countries (DIOC-E) compiles data on migrant stocks, including information disaggregated by age and gender, duration of stay, occupation, labour market status, employment sector, field of study, educational level and place of birth. The data are disaggregated into two groups of youth migrants in OECD countries (15–19 and 20–24 years old) and into one group in non-OECD countries (15–24 years old).
- UNICEF dataset on child migration provides data on international migrants, refugees, asylum seekers and internally displaced persons. It offers timely global estimates of child migration all over the world. Child migrants are defined as those under age 18, and so datasets published by UNICEF, including its monthly “Situation Reports”, are relevant to this chapter.
International instruments, initiatives and dialogues
International law and principles
The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) guarantees the rights of youth under the age of 18 who are legally recognized as children (see Child migration). However, when adolescents become legal adults, they lose certain rights and protections available to them as children, such as access to welfare assistance, education, health care, housing assistance, and in some cases, protection from detention and deportation (Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights [OHCHR], 1989). Thus, the transition to adulthood is particularly difficult for young migrants with no legal status. Such migrants lose access to accommodation and education and may be held in detention or deported to their countries of origin (OHCHR, 1989).
At present, there are no legal instruments designed to protect young migrants that accompany them during their transition to adulthood (OHCHR, 1990). However, the Committee on Civil and Political Rights (CCPR) has clarified that “in general, the rights set forth in the Covenant apply to everyone, irrespective of reciprocity, and irrespective of his or her nationality or Statelessness” (United Nations General Assembly [UNGA], 1966). Similarly, the Committee on the Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR) explains that “education must be accessible to all” and that “the principle of non-discrimination extends to all persons of school age residing in the territory of a State Party, including non-nationals, and irrespective of their legal status” (UNGA, 1966) (see Human rights of migrants: An overview).
In the realm of employment specifically, the CESCR details “the right to just and favorable conditions of work is a right of everyone, without distinction of any kind.” The reference to “everyone” applies to all workers in all settings, including young workers. There are also several international instruments which provide practical guidance to integrating young migrants into the job market. These provisions cover various areas, including minimum age of admission to employment, wages, working time, occupational safety and health, labour inspection and discrimination (International Labour Organization [ILO], 2017).
List
| Global instruments |
|
|---|
Note: This list is not exhaustive.
Regional instruments
| Regional instruments |
|
|---|
Note: This list is not exhaustive.
Example
The International Youth Organization for Ibero-America
The International Youth Organization for Ibero-America brings together youth ministries of 21 countries. Its objective is to facilitate cooperation in youth-related areas. The organization promoted the Ibero-American Convention on the Rights of Youth (signed in 2005) and the additional protocol (signed in 2016). The latter modified the first article of the convention, changing “all persons, nationals or residents in any country of Iberoamerican” to “all persons, nationals, residents, migrants and/or refugees in any country of Latin America.” Currently seven countries have ratified the convention: Bolivia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Spain, Honduras, the Dominican Republic and Uruguay. Ten countries have yet to ratify: Brazil, Cuba, Guatemala, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Portugal and Venezuela.
Initiatives and commitments
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development emphasizes the importance of the younger generations for sustainable development, including the positive contribution made by young migrants to development. It also expresses concern about youth unemployment as a major driver of irregular migration and the impact of migration on youth populations living abroad and upon return to origin countries (United Nations, 2015). 2030 Agenda targets relevant to youth and migration include the following.
SDG
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
- Target 4.4
By 2030, substantially increase the number of youth and adults who have relevant skills, including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent jobs and entrepreneurship - Target 8.5
By 2030 achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all women and men, including for young people and persons with disabilities, and equal pay for work of equal value - Target 8.6
By 2020 substantially reduce the proportion of youth not in employment, education or training - Target 8.B
By 2020 develop and operationalize a global strategy for youth employment and implement the ILO Global Jobs Pact
Note: This list is not exhaustive.
Read More
Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration
Youth and migration cut across most of the objectives of the Global Compact for Migration. These include minimizing the drivers and factors that cause young people to migrate, addressing unemployment and environmental factors, facilitating safe and orderly migration of youth, and ensuring young migrants receive proper guidance on their rights abroad and assistance if they are minors. The Global Compact for Migration is also “child-sensitive”, in that it promotes “existing international legal obligations related to the rights of the child as a primary consideration in all situations concerning children in the context of international migration, including unaccompanied and separated children” (United Nations, 2018). Objectives relevant to youth and migration include the following.
GCM
Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration
- Target 2(e)
Invest in human capital development by promoting entrepreneurship, education, vocational training and skills development programmes and partnerships, productive employment creation, in line with labour market needs, as well as in cooperation with the private sector and trade unions, with a view to reducing youth unemployment, avoiding brain drain and optimizing brain gain in countries of origin, and harnessing the demographic dividend - Target 7(i)
Build on existing practices to facilitate access for migrants in an irregular status to an individual assessment that may lead to regular status on a regular status, on a case to case basis and with clear and transparent criteria, especially in cases where children, youth and families are involved… - Target 15(f)
Provide inclusive and equitable quality education to migrant children and youth, as well as facilitate access to lifelong learning opportunities, including by strengthening the capacities of education systems and by facilitating non-discriminatory access to early childhood development, formal schooling, non-formal education programmes for children for whom the formal system is inaccessible, on-the-job and vocational training, technical education and language training, as well as by fostering partnerships with all stakeholders that can support this endeavour
Note: This list is not exhaustive.
Read More
The United Nations Youth Strategy
In 2018, the United Nations Youth Strategy was launched. Its goal is to address the needs, build the agency and advance the rights of youth in all their diversity around the world. It aims to do this by expanding the global, regional and country-level actions that address youth, and by helping to increase the impact of such actions. The strategy identifies five priority areas related to the youth–migration nexus. It also wants to ensure youth engagement in the implementation, review and follow-up of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, as well as other relevant global agendas and frameworks.
ILO call for action for youth employment
In 2012, the ILO adopted The youth employment crisis: A call for action resolution, which provides a global framework on youth employment. Individual countries can use this framework to shape national strategies and take context-specific action to improve youth employment. The resolution encourages Member States to consider assigning the highest possible priority to youth employment in national development frameworks, and to develop national action plans for decent employment that are integrated with other policy areas and have specific timeframes and measurable outcomes. Although it does not directly focus on migration, the resolution addresses some of the main factors that drive youth migration, especially the persistent youth unemployment challenges. It offers viable policy measures to address these challenges and to facilitate school-to-work transition, including employment and economic policies, measures to enhance employability, labour market policies and the promotion of youth entrepreneurship.
Decent Jobs for Youth
Decent Jobs for Youth is another global initiative that brings together many organizations to achieve the common goals of providing decent work and creating sustainable positive change for youth worldwide. It is also a knowledge-sharing hub and platform that promotes “evidence-based strategies and interventions” as well as “cooperation and collaboration on issues related to youth employment” (Decent Jobs for Youth).
Regional initiatives and commitments
List
|
Regional initiatives and commitments |
|
|---|
Note: This list is not exhaustive.
Inter-State policy dialogues
List
|
Inter-State consultation mechanisms |
|
|---|
Note: This list is not exhaustive.
Other international dialogues or platforms that focus on youth engagement include the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) Youth Forum, and the Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) Youth Dialogue. Another example of a youth stakeholder process is the 2018 Marrakech Youth Forum, led by the United Nations Major Group for Children and Youth (UNMGCY). The UNMGCY, with the support of IOM and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), brought together a group of youth migration policy advocates to discuss how young people could be part of the implementation, follow-up and review of the Global Compact for Migration (UNMGCY, 2019).