Summary
Introduction
Key data sources
International instruments, initiatives and dialogues
Summary
Learning Objective
Learning objectives
  • Understand the impacts of the environment on human mobility
  • Describe the drivers of environmental migration in the context of climate change and relate them to vulnerability and resilience
  • Recognize the main existing legal and policy frameworks relevant to environmental migration at the international level
  • Understand how environmental migration is a cross-cutting policy challenge which requires “whole-of-government” responses
  • Identify policy interventions on environmental migration which can help to reduce forced movements or support the positive potential of migration
Introduction
Migration in the context of environmental change and climate change

An increasing number of people are on the move in the context of environmental hazard such as floods, droughts and longer-term climate change. Climate change impacts drivers of migration by adding to existing environmental challenges, such as increasing the frequency and intensity of natural hazards or exacerbating land degradation and resource scarcity. People might flee to save their lives when sudden-onset hazards strike or move in response to pressures on their livelihoods. This is the case especially for those living in rural areas, as they are particularly affected by climate change impacts such as rainfall variability and soil erosion. The forms of movement are diverse, ranging from the temporary labour migration of a household member to the permanent, planned relocation of an entire community. Pastoralists, whose livelihoods are based around mobility, are increasingly forced to move their herds across greater distances in search of pasture and water. Relocation is already a reality for communities around the world.

Environmental change can also decrease people’s capacity to move away from impacted areas, by reducing the resources available for migration (by lowering crop yields, for example). Trapped populations (that is, those people who would like to move out of an area at risk but are not able to) may be among the most vulnerable to the impacts of environmental change (Foresight, 2011), while those who are able to move but, for diverse reasons, “choose to stay” may also be vulnerable.

Defining environmental migration

There is no internationally agreed term to describe those on the move in the context of environmental change. Terminology in this context is much debated, because different terms imply different rights and obligations and involve different actors. IOM has put forth the term “environmental migration” and a working definition:

Glossary
environmental migrant

A person or group(s) of persons who, predominantly for reasons of sudden or progressive changes in the environment that adversely affect their lives or living conditions, are forced to leave their places of habitual residence, or choose to do so, either temporarily or permanently, and who move within or outside their country of origin or habitual residence.

This definition is not intended to serve a legal purpose, establish norms or have implications for the granting of rights. Rather, it represents an attempt to capture the complexity of the issue and describe all the various situations in which people move in the context of environmental events and processes. This deliberately broad definition seeks to cover all types of movement, whether forced or voluntary, temporary or permanent, internal or international.

While migration is an overarching term to capture different types of movement (see more in Drivers of migration), “human mobility” is increasingly used in international policy discussions in the context of climate change; in this chapter the terms are therefore used interchangeably.

There has been considerable debate regarding the distinction between “forced” and “voluntary” migration. Mobility responses to environmental stressors (e.g. climate change, land degradation, sea-level rise and natural resource availability such as groundwater levels or fish stocks) can be diverse. It is more appropriate to consider the forced/voluntary distinction as a continuum, with some movements clearly forced, some clearly voluntary, but the majority in a grey zone between the two (read more in Types of movements). In this chapter, however, “voluntary migration” will be used where necessary to distinguish some movements from others that are more clearly forced – such as when people flee disasters, where the term “displacement” is used.

The term environmental (or climate) refugee has also been used, primarily by media and advocacy organizations. However, it is a problematic term, rejected by most States and international organizations because it has no legal basis in international law.

The Refugee Convention does not apply to environmental migrants for the following reasons:

  • Refugee status is granted based on a “well-founded fear of being persecuted” of which the agent is understood to be a “State”. Environmental or climatic events or processes do not amount to persecution as defined in refugee law.
  • Climate change and environmental impacts do not fit under the five types of persecution clearly laid out in the text of the Convention, which are “persecution for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinions”.

Nevertheless, in cases where conflict and disasters intersect as drivers of migration or in cases where the disaster leads to an increase in violence and conflict, refugee law could be applicable.

While this chapter will briefly address disaster displacement, please see Mobility dimensions of crises for more information on displacement caused by sudden-onset hazards.

To Go Further
The importance of managing environmental migration

Migration driven by environmental change is a global policy concern that has gained greater attention, especially in the last decade. Environmental change is expected to increasingly drive internal and cross-border migration, disproportionately affecting many of the countries least able to cope or adapt (Kumari Rigaud et al., 2018). For States, failure to address the challenges posed could result in increasingly frequent and devastating mass-displacement events, major development and integration challenges in areas receiving migrants, and expensive, complex relocation schemes in both rural and urban areas. For (prospective) environmental migrants, the absence of adequate support is more likely to result in displacement, relocation or forms of voluntary migration which exacerbate existing vulnerabilities. It may also result in vulnerable people becoming trapped.

Anticipatory interventions to reduce risk and positively manage migration can help avoid the worst outcomes (being forced or unable to move) and can enable the positive role of migration as a chosen adaptation strategy. While environmentally induced movement poses particular challenges and requires assistance in the short and long term, the potentially positive role of migration should not be overlooked. Autonomously planned migration – potentially facilitated by governments – can be an important adaptation strategy. Temporary migration may build resilience and avoid or delay permanent outmigration. Pre-emptive planned relocation schemes can be considered to move people out of areas exposed to recurrent, intense hazards or to irreversible and severe degradation. Relocations should, however, be a last resort, given their implications (further details about Facilitating migration to adapt to environmental change and Managing environmental migration later in this chapter).

Key data sources

Data on migration in the context of drought and slow processes such as climate change and land degradation are not widely collected. This is due to the lack of data collection capacity in many of the areas affected, and the multi-causal nature of migration which can make it difficult to identify environmental migration. Data on displacement in the context of sudden-onset disasters are more widely available but are often limited to estimates of numbers displaced. In both cases, most of the data available are presented as aggregate numbers only, giving little or no indication as to how different demographic groups are impacted. The lack of data that is disaggregated by sex and age is a particular concern since it limits the understanding of the vulnerability, resilience and needs of specific subgroups. Such information is crucial in order to improve response strategies and provide effective support and assistance to affected populations.

Additional challenges for policy development on environmental migration are a result of a lack of data in many countries on key elements, such as:

  • internal migration (duration, patterns, numbers);
  • internal remittances;
  • immobile populations;
  • the impacts of migration on well-being, vulnerability and resilience.
 
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National sources

Censuses and demographic surveys may provide data on internal migration, which could provide indications on population movements linked to environmental drivers; but they do not effectively capture data on temporary movements (census rounds are usually over 10-year timeframes), nor do they necessarily include questions to identify environmental drivers of people’s movement.

  • The IOM Environmental Migration Portal features country profiles on the migration–environment nexus.
Policy Approaches
Improving the evidence base on environmental migration at the national level
  • Improve collection of data relevant to environmental migration (displacement, voluntary migration and relocation) through:
    • Including relevant questions in census exercises.
    • Developing systems for monitoring and collating environmental internal migration data.
    • Supporting additional case studies/household surveys, to improve data on environmental migration over extended time periods (“time series data”):
      • Distinguishing disaster displacement from more voluntary movements and distinguishing between voluntary seasonal, temporary and permanent movements;
      • Distinguishing internal from international movements;
      • Collecting gender- and age-disaggregated data;
      • Obtaining data on remittances (including internal remittances) to improve understanding of the potential role of migration in building resilience to environmental challenges in origin areas;
      • Analysing impacts in origin and destination areas
  • Support/improve data collection on environmental stressors (climate change, land degradation, sea-level rise and natural resource availability such as groundwater levels or fish stocks).
  • Undertake a national assessment of migration, environment and climate change to identify exposed and vulnerable populations, including immobile populations. Periodically update the assessment.
  • Designate entities responsible for collecting and reporting relevant data (for instance, data on disaster displacement, internal migration, remittances).
  • Create a coordination structure and designate a lead national entity responsible for collating and sharing environmental migration data, with clear reporting and distribution channels.
  • Promote and use standardized terms, differentiating between:
    • Disaster displacement (and within disaster displacement, distinguishing between planned evacuations and unmanaged displacement);
    • Voluntary migration;
    • Planned relocation.
  • Ensure data collected are shared with policymakers from relevant sectors (for instance, via a national coordination structure on environmental migration).
  • Invest in capacity-building of relevant government agencies/departments.
International sources

Comprehensive datasets on environmental migration do not yet exist at the global level, but several initiatives have started to collect information across several countries. Key sources and initiatives include:

  • The IOM Displacement Tracking Matrix (DTM) is a system used to track and monitor population mobility, including in the context of disasters and environmental change. Data are regularly captured, processed and disseminated to provide a better understanding of the movements and evolving needs of displaced populations and migrants. Where relevant, DTM gathers data on drought-related displacement.
  • The Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) online Global Internal Displacement Database (GIDD) compiles data on internal displacement in the context of sudden-onset disasters globally. Figures are published in the annual Global Report on Internal Displacement (GRID). IDMC also analyses data on displacement linked to slow-onset disasters such as drought. IDMC’s Global Displacement Risk Model presents data on displacement risk associated with sudden-onset disasters by assessing the likelihood of such population movements taking place in the future. 
  • Famine Early Warning Systems Network provides datasets on early warning data as well as unbiased, evidence-based analysis on acute food insecurity to governments and relief agencies that plan for and respond to humanitarian crises.
  • Global Risk Data Platform is a multi-agency effort to share spatial data on global risk from natural hazards such as tropical cyclones and related storm surges, drought, earthquakes, biomass fires, floods, landslides, tsunamis and volcanic eruptions.
  • Helix (High-End Climate Impacts and Extremes) provides research on climate impacts and adaptation in relation to varying global warming scenarios (2, 4 and 6 degrees Celsius) using predictive analytics and including mobility considerations.

See more information in Data, research and analysis for policymaking. More sources on displacement in Mobility dimensions of crises.

International instruments, initiatives and dialogues
International law and principles

While there are currently no global legal instruments which specifically address environmental migrants or environmental migration, there are a number of existing instruments and principles at the international and regional levels that protect or might be used to protect environmental migrants.

In the case of cross-border movements, the control of the admission of non-nationals to their territory falls within States’ sovereignty. However, States have to respect binding international law standards, (namely, the principle of Protection against refoulement and the principle of the Best interests of the child, as detailed, respectively, in Human rights of migrants and Child migration). For instance, the principle of non-refoulement can be invoked in relation to the prohibition of torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment (article 7 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights [ICCPR]) when disaster or climatic impacts are particularly serious and widespread to prevent the return of migrants, even if the threshold required for the application of this provision is quite high and is not met in many disaster situations.

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List

 

Global instruments

Note: This list is not exhaustive.

International human rights framework

All people moving due to environmental events and processes are covered by the international human rights framework. The two general covenants (ICCPR and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights [ICESCR]) cover a vast array of rights that may be relevant to protect people affected by environmental shocks or stresses such as:

  • The right to life and physical integrity (article 6 ICCPR), which can be threatened by environmental impacts;
  • The right to move freely within a country and choose one’s residence (article 12(1) ICCPR) following the need to move;
  • The right to leave one’s country (article 12(2) ICCPR);
  • The right to an adequate standard of living (article 11 ICESCR), including adequate food, clothing and housing, and, as per the Economic and Social Council (ESC) General Comment 15, water. By recognizing the right to the continuous improvement of living conditions, States Parties also commit to adopt measures to reduce people’s vulnerability and build their resilience to withstand disasters or cope with other environmental impacts.

Similarly, the United Declaration of Human Rights article establishing “no one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his [or her] property” could be particularly relevant:

  • Such as for those who have lost property through sudden-onset disasters (earthquakes, floods and the like), in the context of forced movements;
  • For those leaving property (and land) behind, in the context of planned relocation schemes.

On a number of occasions, the United Nations Human Rights Council has considered and even requested research on the human rights implications of human mobility in the context of climate change.

To Go Further

Several undertakings relating to the human mobility implications of climate change have been made in the framework of international climate change negotiations.

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

Under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the following are key:

  • The Cancun Agreements adopted at the Sixteenth Conference of the Parties (COP16) makes reference to disaster risk reduction and “climate change-induced migration, displacement and relocation” as elements to be addressed (paragraph 14 (f) of Decision 1/CP.16).
  • The Paris Agreement adopted at COP21 represents an unprecedented breakthrough by explicitly encouraging Parties to the UNFCCC to “respect, promote and consider their obligations on … the rights … of migrants” when “taking acting action to address climate change”. Furthermore, COP21 established a task force to develop recommendations to “avert, minimize and address displacement related to the adverse impacts of climate change”.
  • Recommendations based on the submissions of the Task Force on Displacement were submitted by the Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage and endorsed at COP24 in 2018.
To Go Further
Policy Approaches
Recommendations of the Task Force on Displacement relevant to States
  • Include the full spectrum of human mobility considerations (that is, disaster displacement, voluntary migration, planned relocation) in national climate change adaptation strategies (national adaptation plans, nationally determined contributions, and so on).
  • Strengthen policy coherence across sectors when addressing climate change.

United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

The issue of migration has been increasingly included in the deliberations of States Parties to the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD):

  • The recognition “that desertification/land degradation and drought are major environmental, economic and social challenges for global sustainable development in particular for … reduced resilience to climate change and forced migration” (Ordos Declaration adopted at COP13 in 2017a).
  • The commitment to make efforts so that “Migration forced by desertification and land degradation is substantially reduced” (Objective 2, UNCCD 2018–2030 Strategic Framework adopted at COP13, 2017b).
  • Migration-centred resolutions ICCD/COP(13)/L.25 (2017c) and Decision 22/COP.14 (2019) encourage action to address land drivers of migration, including by “Promoting the restoration of degraded land as one way of changing the narrative in communities impacted by desertification/land degradation and drought”.
To Go Further

Other areas of international law relevant to environmental migration

These areas include:

  • The 1954 and 1961 Statelessness Conventions, in relation to the low-lying island States whose territorial existence is called into question by sea-level rise;
  • Humanitarian law;
  • Disaster response law (particularly relevant regarding the right to access humanitarian assistance without discrimination);
  • Environmental law (which is particularly relevant for the rights to information and public participation);
  • Climate change law.

See Mobility dimensions of crises for further details on instruments regarding disasters.

There is widespread agreement that more should be done to strengthen the legal frameworks and operational measures for the protection of environmental migrants and other affected populations. However, there is a lack of consensus regarding the best way to do this, with some advocating for a revision of the 1951 Refugee Convention; some arguing for the creation of an instrument, binding or non-binding, as part of the UNFCCC based on the recommendations from the Task Force on Displacement; some arguing for a standalone international convention; and some arguing that existing frameworks should be sufficient, if properly implemented.

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Regional instruments

List

REGIONAL INSTRUMENTS

Note: This list is not exhaustive.

 

The African Union Convention for the Protection and Assistance of Internally Displaced Persons in Africa (“Kampala Convention”) provides for the protection of people forced to move within their country as a result of, among other things, disasters and climate change. It is based on the non-binding United Nations Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement adopted in 1998 (see Initiatives and commitments below) but goes further by including climate change among the causes of displacement listed in the definition of Internally Displaced Persons.

Another example at the subregional level is the Great Lakes Protocol on Protection and Assistance to Internally Displaced Persons. Also based on the aforementioned Guiding Principles, it was adopted in 2006 by the Member States of the International Conference on the Great Lakes Region, as part of the Pact on Security, Stability and Development in North America.

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Initiatives and commitments

2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and its Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) provide several entry points for governments to address environmental migration. Several of the goals address slow-onset drivers of environmental migration, such as water scarcity and land degradation, while others address sudden-onset events and disasters. There are also specific goals relating to migration management (SDG 10) and building adaptive capacity to climate change (SDG 13). For more information on disasters and resilience, see Mobility dimensions of crises.

SDG
2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
  • Target 1.5
    By 2030, build the resilience of the poor and those in vulnerable situations and reduce their exposure and vulnerability to climate-related extreme events and other economic, social and environmental shocks and disasters
  • Target 2.4
    By 2030, ensure sustainable food production systems and implement resilient agricultural practices that increase productivity and production, that help maintain ecosystems, that strengthen capacity for adaptation to climate change, extreme weather, drought, flooding and other disasters and that progressively improve land and soil quality
  • Target 6.1
    By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all
  • Target 10.7
    Facilitate orderly, safe, regular and responsible migration and mobility of people, including through the implementation of planned and well-managed migration policies
  • Target 11.5
    By 2030, significantly reduce the number of deaths and the number of people affected and substantially decrease the direct economic losses relative to global gross domestic product caused by disasters, including water-related disasters, with a focus on protecting the poor and people in vulnerable situations
  • Target 11.b
    By 2020, substantially increase the number of cities and human settlements adopting and implementing integrated policies and plans towards inclusion, resource efficiency, mitigation and adaptation to climate change, resilience to disasters, and develop and implement, in line with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030, holistic disaster risk management at all levels
  • Target 13.1
    Strengthen resilience and adaptive capacity to climate-related hazards and natural disasters in all countries
  • Target 13.2
    Integrate climate change measures into national policies, strategies and planning
  • SDG 15
    Protecting, restoring and promoting sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably managing forests, combating desertification, and halting and reversing land degradation and halting biodiversity loss
To Go Further

Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration

The Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration contains multiple references to environmental migration. In terms of actionable commitments, most references are made under “Objective 2: Minimizing the adverse drivers and structural factors that compel people to leave their country of origin“, in the section specifically dedicated to "Natural disasters, the adverse effects of climate change, and environmental degradation" (paragraphs 18.h–18.l). Other objectives are relevant, even if indirectly (for instance, aim for supporting migration in a way that could contribute to building the resilience of populations affected by environmental change).

GCM
Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration
  • Objective 2
    Minimize the adverse drivers and structural factors that compel people to leave their country of origin
  • Objective 5.h
    Cooperate to identify, develop and strengthen solutions for migrants compelled to leave their countries of origin due to slow-onset natural disasters, the adverse effects of climate change, and environmental degradation, such as desertification, land degradation, drought and sea level rise, including by devising planned relocation and visa options, in cases where adaptation in or return to their country of origin is not possible
  • Objective 7.j
    Apply specific support measures to ensure that migrants caught up in situations of crisis in countries of transit and destination have access to consular protection and humanitarian assistance, including by facilitating cross-border and broader international cooperation, as well as by taking migrant populations into account in crisis preparedness, emergency response and post-crisis action
  • Objective 23.b
    Increase international and regional cooperation to accelerate the implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development in geographic areas from where irregular migration systematically originates due to consistent impacts of poverty, unemployment, climate change and disasters, inequality, corruption, poor governance, among other structural factors, through appropriate cooperation frameworks, innovative partnerships and the involvement of all relevant stakeholders, while upholding national ownership and shared responsibility

Importantly, the Global Compact for Migration rests on a number of global of instruments on environmental migration, including:

  • The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Paris Agreement
  • The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
  • The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
  • The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction

Further, it highlights the need for policy coherence by emphasizing the importance of recommendations stemming from relevant State-led initiatives outside of the United Nations context, such as the Nansen Initiative and its successor the Platform on Disaster Displacement, as well as the Migrants in Countries in Crisis (MICIC) Initiative.

At the same time, while the Global Compact for Migration is a significant breakthrough in terms of States’ commitment to addressing environmental migration, it is limited to consideration of international migration. This is significant given that the majority of environmental migration takes place within countries (internal migration).

United Nations Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement

The United Nations Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement, adopted by States in 1998, explicitly include “natural or human-made disasters” as a cause of displacement, together with armed conflict, situations of generalized violence, and violations of human rights. The Guiding Principles set out applicable rights by phase:

  • Protection from displacement
  • Protection during displacement
  • Return, resettlement and reintegration

While the Guiding Principles are not legally binding and do not require States to grant a special legal status to internally displaced persons, they are based on and consistent with binding international human rights and humanitarian law, and benefit from considerable international legitimacy. They have also been translated into binding regional and national instruments (see the Interlinkage The environment, climate change, migration and health). For more information on internal displacement see the series of chapters on Mobility dimensions of crises.

Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030

The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030, adopted by States at the Third United Nations World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in 2015, contains several explicit references to human mobility. The framework brings increased recognition to the importance of human mobility in the context of disasters, including those associated with environmental and climate change, in terms of reducing vulnerability and building resilience, as well as disaster preparedness, response and recovery (further details in Initiatives and commitments addressing migration and Mobility dimensions of crises).

The Nansen Initiative

A State-led consultation process called the Nansen Initiative was launched in 2012, on cross-border displacement in the context of disasters and climate change. It focused on addressing the “protection gap” for people displaced across borders in the context of disasters and climate change, notwithstanding protection provided under human rights law and other relevant instruments as explained above. The Nansen Initiative led to:

Migrants in Countries in Crises Initiative

The Guidelines were issued in 2016 following the State-led Migrants in Countries in Crises (MICIC) consultation process (see more in Initiatives and commitments addressing environmental migration in Initiatives and commitments addressing migration). The scope of the MICIC Initiative was to improve protection of migrants caught in countries experiencing conflicts/civil unrest and disasters, including those linked to climate change. The initiative’s work encompassed all migrants, with or without legal status, present in a country temporarily or permanently at the time a crisis occurs.

Climate Vulnerable Forum

The Climate Vulnerable Forum (CVF) is an international partnership of countries highly vulnerable to a warming planet. It serves as a South-South cooperation platform for participating governments to act together to deal with global climate change, including implications for migration. 

Regional iniatiatives

Regional inter-State agreements facilitating the mobility of people across borders can be relevant for environmental migration, even if they do not target environmental migrants specifically. Regional transhumance agreements are one type of such agreements (see examples on Facilitating migration to adapt to environmental changes in Managing environmental migration). Similarly, bilateral arrangements and agreements, such as temporary labour migration schemes or non-reciprocal agreements, open regular pathways in the context of humanitarian assistance for migrants displaced by environmental and climate change disasters (see examples in Managing environmental migration).

Inter-State policy dialogues

Environmental migration is increasingly mentioned in policy dialogues on migration. In addition to several bilateral and multilateral engagements, these include forums within formal regional groupings and informal inter-State consultation mechanisms (ISCM) on migration that bring participating States together to promote dialogue on common interests, share experiences and best practices, exchange information and put in motion plans of action and common strategies on particular issues (see more in Inter-State policy dialogue on migration). 

Environmental migration has been addressed by various formal regional intergovernmental organizations and political and economic unions, such as the Pacific Islands Forum Secretariat, South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), European Commission, African Union Commission, Indian Ocean Commission, Southern African Development Community (SADC), and others.

List
Inter-State Consultation Mechanisms 

Note: This list is not exhaustive.

As a result of these dialogues, some regional consultative processes identified concrete practices adjusted to the specific regional context through which to address environmental migration. For instance, the RCM Guide to Effective Practices for RCM Member Countries: Protection for Persons Moving across Borders in the Context of Disasters (2016), and the SACM CSM Lineamientos Regionales en Materia de Proteccion y Asistencia a Personas Desplazadas a Traves de Fronteras y Migrantes en Paises Afectados por Desastres de Origen Natural (2018).

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